Page text
ian
| ' “A, ,
5
Lits Hoe
ae aan
and War | ° LLorndon
S ecker a + 1939
|
n burg «
BO Eupen pendMartin Secker and Warburg Ltd.
22, Essex Street, Strand, W.C.2.
First Published 1939
u oe OG ome ori
RN
od
ve OP
LL
begs 808 ols
An rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form
without permissionin writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who
Ee may quote brief passages or reproduce not more than three illustrations
Sns in a review to be printed iin a magazine or paper.
PRINTED IN U.S. A.Foreword
An ordinary reporter deals with persons whom he has met or with events which
he has himself experienced, whereas this book deals with social facts of world-wide
import. Nations, classes, states, well-to-do and poor people are described by means
of simple charts and simple statements in this report, without the use of personal
names. An attempt has been made to evolve for this purpose a special picture-text
style which should enable anybody to walk through the modern world thatis begin-
ning to appear about us and see it as hemay see a landscape with its hills and plains,
woods and meadows. |
The aim is to trace the origin of “modern men” and depict their behaviour and
achievements, without presenting any social or economic theory. No attempt has
been made to define the term “modern.” It appears from the ordinary use of the
word that an institution or a custom may be called “modern” if there is any sci-
entific reason to assume thatit displays a certain social trend and if it is being imitated
to a world-wide extent. | | ed
This comprehensive survey starts with facts. The same fact can be looked at ed
from different points of view. Thus it may bean elementin the world situation, or
an elementin the total social environment, or an element of daily life. Itis impor- —
tant to build bridges from one‘field of investigation to another and to show cross-
cöhnexions. En 7 | en | |
| Modernity as a‘universal. phenomenon iis widely discussed. Certain arguments .
= En appear againand again, but are scattered so that it is not easy to arrive at a compre-
|/ hensive view.How can facts be presented without causing confusion by their over-
_whelming diversity? Thevisualization of selected primary material. connected with a
| simple statements is onesolution. : | ee
_ Even such°“selection” influences readers in a certain| direction, but one can
| interpret the samefacts indifferent senses and augment them. That is one impor-
tant difference between amerelygeneralargument and an explanation based on
a collection offacts.It isnot everybody’ sbusiness to read bulky scientific books |
and to analyse statistical data, whichcombine information from different sources.
Therefore this book presents,where possible, material which everybody will find
useful in interpretingstatistics.published iin newspapers or reference books. u
| The principle of visualization applied in this book is based on the ISOTYPE oe
method, developed. by xm >e together 1with my.collaborators during the: last fit nyears. It shows connexions between facts instead of discussing them. Impressive
visual aids do not merely act as illustrations or as eye-bait in this book; they are
parts of the explanations themselves. The reader may not understand the contents
by reading the text only; he must “read” the pictures as carefully as the text. An
international picture languageis combined with a word language.
It is not easy to describe universal social facts. International data concerning
the present and suitable for comparison are not readily found, and very few con-
cerning the past are available; hence one must deal with such figures as are at one’s
disposal. Birth and death appear more frequently in this book than their social
importance warrants, because more data dealing with birth and death are available
than of any other kind. These data must therefore be used as interpretative aids.
| Everybody, even one who is no scholar,is able to take a scientific attitude and
to regard calmly the Pilgrimage of Man—the life, fears, and hopes of large groups
of people rather than of single persons. Heroes, kings, leaders, scientists, actors, or
other individuals are interesting subjects of investigation and description, but must
be treated differently from mankind as a whole.
Fear and hope worry men. Walt Whitman’s “There was never any more incep-
tion than thereis now . . . and will never be any more perfection than thereis now, 7
nor any more heaven or hell than there is now,” may perhaps be a consolation for i
be
many people in difficult social situations. Nevertheless not a few want to know what
inception, what perfection, what particular kind of heaven or hell ours may be.
Goethe’s saying that “a philistine is an empty sausage-skin, stuffed with fear and
hope,” characterizes not only a certain group of people, but all; it is impossible to
be sure of finding exceptions. The scientific attitude seems to reduce uneasiness and
_ disturbance a little by analysing a situation. Science has been an important tool
5 for mankind and may continue to be so in the future. |
The combination of the desire for security withthe desire for adventureis in-
: herently human, but the desire for securitymay lead to social organization, which
the desire for adventure does not. Where does fresh security and where does fresh
insecurity arise? Thatis the question. Philosophers, theologians, poets, politicians,
journalists, pedagogues, scientists, and men in the street are trying to answer this
question. By modern means, as a human being of our time, I shall try to tell about
our environment, about you and about myself; butin a general way. So, but with-
out Walt Whitman’ss unceasing enthusiasm, “the Modern Man I sing.”Contents
Past and Preseni : 2. page 11
Fighting death successfully. Unemployment as a social epidemic of the
present. The fear of the unknown. The elimination of the plague. The end
of nomadic invasions. From Mongolian Empire to Outer Mongolia. The
well-fed and well-equipped soldier. The unified civilization of the world.
Unification of Mankind page
19
Birthplaces of civilization. The twenty-five-per-cent world imperia. Two
world imperia and their gigantic fortifications. Two world imperia of no-
madic conquerers. The world empire of the sea. World-wide wars and
world-wide peace treaties. What about the Habsburg empire? The conquis-
tadores. Slavery and mankind’s unification. The unified Catholic-Iberian
world and its destruction. The victors from the Atlantic coast. Merchants,
filibusters, and governments. “ Vikingization” and British expansion.
Trends towards Modernity | en | En 5 page 43 |
Anticipation and control of the future. Decreasing birth-rate and universal
growth of population. The Occidentals predominant iin terms of kilowatt-
hours. Who are the have’s, who are the have-not’s, in automobiles? The age
of “robots.” Mongolization in agriculture. Working hours and birth-rate
decreasing, suicide-rate and literacy increasing. A family in the past and
in the present. Common life and leisure of children and parents. “Trees”
of population and present-day fear. Mechanization of personal life. Sil-
houettes of nationsand their features. on. | |
A bird’s.eye 4view of the socio-economic structure. The 1 raw materials of the 7
world and international conflicts. The southern proletarians must pay. —
on The struggle for life around the Pacific. The Anglo-Saxons are the well-to-
: | do. No international“man-economy.” Immigration restricted. World de-pression. Mankind and preparation for war. Restricted production and de-
stroyed products. “Autarchy” as a destroyer and teacher. Relief work and
the armament industry as brothers. Best sellers tell about war, commerce,
and piracy. War economy. Necessity makes strange bedfellows. Planning
and civil liberty. Waris more easily planned than peace. Is war necessary ¢
How to engineer a real world community.
Social Environment = En page 91
Profile of happiness. From the first-class travellers to the hoboes. Modern
men have a thick skin. The ruling groups in commerce and government.
Social discrimination, old and new. To what extent do strikes express the
degree of discontent? Elections and publicity. Chessboard of three politico-
economic qualities. Who may become whose ally? Co-operation in fighting
floods and establishing irrigation. Those who fear centralization. Stocks of
goods and the prevention of famine. Does increase of facilities for com-
munication also mean an increase of freedom of speech? The territory of
modernity.
Man’s Daily Life 2. . page 111
Child without uncle. Why are there kindergartens? Women’s “veils” are
vanishing. Leisure is victorious. Sports and militarism. Uniforms and flir-
tation. Increase of recreation and educationin modern life. The age of re-
{rigerators, bathtubs, and electric bulbs. From noon meal to dinner. Fun
and pleasure. Rhythm of personal life. The extent of the traveller’s world.
Features of death. Traditional rulesand premarital sex relations. Love and
business. “The boss will fire me.”Whatis the result of social instability?
_ Magical traditions and the scientific attitude. What has become of the
thirteenth floor? The change in man’s character and man’s social order.
Reconstruction of social order and the life of modern man. |
Appendix eee u| a En Zn = | 5 . page 133
ns, . en
Bibliography a nd quotatio
“Acknowledgment = page 159S
©
m
@
ia
Qu.
“oO |
=
| Ü | |
nee
ekCan one visualize, in a single picture, basic changes
in the life mode of mod-
ern man—that is, in elements which change not only his technical equipment, but
also his hopes and fears? Of course one can. Modern people live longer than their
forefathers did. Therefore improvement in public health is a characteristic feature
of modern history. 2
Mortality Rates in a Central European Town
Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
1591 aid)
Plague
1624 +44
Po Mae eee
Plague
1656
: Plague
"Eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries
| 1783 tit
1830 wi
. a1880 mw
| voo u
Bu Be u
FR a nsm
u
u 1936
: Each crossrepresents death per 100 population en soon li
BriteRealize what multifarious changes
Unemployment Cycles in human life followed the release of
_ Europeans from the plague. The Black
Death in the fourteenth century de-
stroyed families and human contacts,
‘customs, and traditions. A third of
Europe’s and perhaps of the world’s pop-
ulation died. The plague struck rich and
_ poor—kings and popes, painters and sci-
entists, as well as the man in the street.
_ Bitby bitauthorities combated the plague
by quarantine and other measures.
Is this an example of the complete
elimination of fluctuations in security?
Not at all! A tremendous rise and
fallin fear and troubleis apparent, cor-
responding with the increase and de-
crease of unemployment in Western
countries, similar to the rise and fall
in death-rates. These new fluctuations,
combined with pauperism, began to
. strike
men after
the invasi
ons of the
"People learned to fight epidemics
Je centuries ago. A tendency to fight unem-
ployment and its causes is becoming
_ more evident. Unemployment and pau-
___perismdo not menace everyone as di-
rectlyas the plague did. If poverty were
2 infectious, it might have disappeared like
. the plague. But economic depressions
threaten larger groups of people than
5 formerly. The fear of economic depres-
sions, wars, revolutions, and counter-
revolutions 1takes the place of fear of the
| plague. To remove these growing dan-
u. gers would involve serious alterations of
some majorsocial institutions. The fight
| iu symbol represents | On j5 >
against the plague was possible without —
1°unemployed ¢among member Cf Brith Trade Unions . any importantsocial changes.
10The plague came from the unknown, spread
everywhere, and vanished, nobody knew why.
There was a common fear of this terrifying un-
known.
Local barriers were erected, but they were not
very efficient. State and town officials shrank from
calling the disease
by its name, fearing that commer-
cial interests would suffer. |
The growing power of governments made a
more efficient organization possible. Extended cor-
_dons of police kept the plague outside western and
central Europe. |
The international health organization of the |
League of Nations restricts the plague to a relatively
small territory in Asia. The protected region is now
almost the whole world. |
Fighting menaces coming from geögraphically unknown sources continued. for
centuries. The nomad was the bearer of another menace. Nomadic tribes and na- —
tions—the Huns and later the Arabs, the Mongols, and the Turks—terrified Euro-
pean countries, up to the times when the Europeans themselves began to become |
the “scourges” of the natives in Africa, Asia, America, and Australia. One cannot
easily reconstruct the horror which was spread by the invadingmasses of Huns and. |
Mongols. Today one knows that there are no longer unknown masses in motion to
_ surprise men by a sudden attack. Our knowledge of the world is becoming so clear
that even those forces which menaced our ancestors have been traced to> their
sources.They came from the steppes in central Asia.
Nomadic Invasions from Central Asia _ red lines: routes of nomads
cultivated area steppes etc. “sore
Scarcity of food kept the people in central Asia constantly on the move. To-
day it is known that, for instance, the Lop Nor lake in central Asia changed its
position. That meant the disappearance of fertile land, of the livelihood of whole
peoples. There may be many other causes which put masses in motion. There were
nogeographic barriers against warlike migrations. The Chinese erected their fa-
mous wall and defended their Empire against invasions. The expansion of the Rus-
sian Empire ended the pressure of Asiatic nomads against Europe. Russian settlers
went to the East along the rivers of Siberia,following the custom of the old North-
men who carried their boats from river to river. The mystic forces of the East
vanished : Gog and Magog, the Biblical kings, and their followers.
; OuterMongolia
Outer Mongolia and Tannu Tuva,
depending upon their great neighbours, —
are the heirs of an old tradition. They |
| are, as it were, the remnant of the former |
unknown. 5
16Modern scientific methods and engineering have spread over the whole world,
especially the technology of war, which is the backbone of the political and social
life of the present time. The elimination of the strange is necessarily accompanied
by unification. Photographs of a League of Nations Congress or of an international
naval conference reveal Western dress and Western uniform with very few excep-
tions. Progress from the colourful multifarious picture of the arms and weapons of |
the past up to the egalitarian sameness of modern uniformsis symbolic:
As a matter of fact, this unification is far advanced. In the international mar-
ket, industries which use cheap labour and relatively primitive machinery can com- —
pete successfully with highly developed industries. On the battlefield victories are
won by the most highly developed war equipment. Whatever the social order may
be, a knowledge of war technologyis the common possession of all nations today.
Cheap armament and badly fed soldiers do not win battles. Mankind disposes of
better equipment, better planning, and better methods for killing and tormenting |
fellow-beings than for making life and living. conditions secure. | |No text on this page.
Is there any evidence of increasing security? Can mankind be shielded from
the unknown? Certainly not. There is in the world much fear of the unpredictable.
Belief in an increasing general security has been shaken by the events of the last
decades. Nowadays people fear one another more than they fear unknown forces.
| Still, there are many examples in history of arms which had been made for
war eventually being used constructively for peace. Will international co-operation
in the future apply technology solely to achieve human happiness?*
From time immemorial tribes and peoples influenced one another successively.
Customs and words, tales and tools wandered throughout the world and linked Afri-
can with Eurasian peoples, the latter with arctic tribes, and islanders of the Pacific
with Americans. It is hardly possible to say which people were the first to use the
plough or which first tamed the horse to become a helper of man. All these innova-
tions spread. |
Probably the first civilizations owed their existence to a common struggle against
natural forces, such as floods and droughts. The first states organized the struggle.
The Mediterranean civilizations were developed more or less in isolation, as in the
valley of the Nile, of the Euphrates and Tigris, and in southern Arabia. Such
civilizations may easily be destroyed. Ruins of old Arabian towns are found aban-
doned in deserts. | | |
Such isolation is broken down by roads and other connexions. Still, a fairly
definite line separates the Old World from the New.
Birthplaces of Civilization
HO aren ee de Br
vert ting geve”
ted: old American (without wheel} black: Mediterranean brown: Indian green: Central Asiatic yellow: Far EasternBirthplaces of Civilization
ted: old American (without wheel) black: Mediterranean brown: Indian green: Central Asiatic yellow: Far Eastern
2|The pre-„Columbian civilization of America was highly developed in agricul.
ture, horticulture, astronomy, mathematics, and writing. But it had no wheel nor
draught animal, especially no horse. Traces of a very early prehistoric horse have
been found in America, which later became extinct. The wheel seems to be a very
special invention. There is no part of the human body which suggests the wheel
turning round a separate axle, as for instance an extended arm suggests the hammer.
We find the wheelin use in all civilizations of the Old World, in various forms.
It came to America only with the Spanish conquistadores.
Modern civilizationis based mainly on Mediterranean ways and customs; it pre-
serves in particular the traditions and experience of medizval Roman Catholic and
Greek Orthodox peoples and of the ancient Roman Empire. Modern world society
is the successor of mediseval and ancient Roman society.
The Roman Empire compre-
hended all the peoples who lived around the Mediterranean. Hence Christian names
are of Latin, Greek, Jewish, Teutonic, and Anglo-Saxon, but not of Arabian, Indian,
or Chinese origin. From Latin: Anthony, Austin, Cecil, Felix, Julius, Patrick, Vin-
cent, Clara, Gloria, Grace, June, Lucy; from Greek: Alexander, Andrew, Eugene,
George, Isidore, Peter, Philip, Barbara, Catherine, Dorothy, Helen, Margaret; from
Hebrew: Daniel, James, John, Matthew, Michael, Samuel, Thomas, Anna, Elizabeth,
Mary, Susan; from Teutonic: Adolph, Arnold, Charles, Louis, Richard, Rudolph,
William, Amelia; from Anglo- Saxon: Edgar, Elmer, Edith, Ethel, Hilda.
| The influence of Arabic civilization was not so great. It began after a.p. 700.
oe Christian, Jewish, and Arabic philosophy were united during the Middle Ages by a
common religious and scientific tradition. Some social, military, and technical activi-
ties of European nations were influenced directly by the Arabian world. So, too,
were a great many nations in Africa and Asia. Among our everyday words, some are
_ ofArabian origin, such as: admiral, alcohol, arsenal, alkali, apricot, candy, chemi-
| cals, coffee, drug, tariff, traffie. Ifit is trae that the Arabian word al-kimiyais derived
from a Greek word, chymeia, meaning “a mingling,” the word alchemy would still
be a symbol of the closeconnexion between ancient Mediterranean cultures.
| Scholars point out that numerous Western doctrines derive from East Indian
counterparts, but the social behaviour of Western people was not essentially changed
by the notions and activities—or, rather, inactivities—of the Hindus, : nor by their
caste system or suttee. The Buddhist’s shrinking from the horrors of war and slaugh-
ter hasonly a few counterparts in Western history. The real efforts of Indian kings
to organize peacefor the sake of peace have no equivalents in the history of the
» Crasades, with their bloodshed, or in that of the Holy Roman Empire.
There iis a direct and indirect Chinese influence on modern technology‚ such as
| in the use of paper, porcelain, silk, and rockets. We accept as our own ‘fruits that
nn originated iin China, such as oranges, peaches, apricots. Likewise the
Chinese received
ae many vegetables fro
m Europe.7Europeans who penetrated into China in the fourteenth century were welcomed
and accepted as collaborators by the government. After they returned to Europe,
_ they told of a well-organized and well-educated nation. Good relations between rep-
resentatives of the Catholic Church and the Chinese rulers followed and were main-
tained for a long time. Because of their superior weapons, Europeans began to look
down on the Chinese. Certain Chinese moral and political doctrines stimulated Eu-
ropean thinkers and reformers, however, especially in the eighteenth century. Dur-
ing the rococo period the design of Western furniture reflected Chinese influence.
From the very beginning of the industrial revolution which rapidly spread over
the world, Christian peoples widely influenced the social behaviour of “infidel”
nations in Asia and Africa, such as the Japanese, Chinese, Hindus, Iranians, Turks,
Arabs, Moors, and Negroes. On the other hand the general attitude and the condi- |
tioned reactions of modern men are notinfluenced to any remarkable degree by the
behaviour of these peoplesin our age. | |
| Political organization means much in civilization. The history of the great
powers shows how governments extend their influence over the individual, preparing
war or organizing internal peace, preventing floods and famines,
erecting road and
irrigation systems, regulating cities and social institutions.
Nations can work out successfully only what they have learned in past centuries.
Modern organization is based on experience within world imperia. Europeans —
learned self-government in the Middle Ages, established “urban republics,” and, if
necessary, stopped fighting between small groups—between family and. family,
between fortified palace and fortified palace within one town, as in Italy—for their
ancestors had experienced the internal peace of the Roman Empire. Comprehensive |
state organization similar to the organization of world imperia ended most such
conflicts in modern times. The Mohammedans were forced to suppress the old re-
venge for blood when they becameconquerors ; no big army can be based on a co-
operation of avengers. Internal peace was sometimes only a period of preparation
for war. Arabian caliphs as temporal and spiritual rulers of their nation, no less
than Mongolian khans, were setting Ilittlestonesofthe mosaic of: ‘world peace,” the
day-dream of modern times. BU ET et or ran
_ If we apply the name “worldimperium”only to‚ such realms as have contained
about twenty-five per cent of theworld population, we find no more> than five 5
imperia from the Roman Empire «downto> the present time. u m erWorld Imperia
En Each man symbol represents 10 million population — oe | Br Ä u a
World Imperia
A.D.
imperium Romanum China
800
Karren Arabian Empire
1250
all
Mongolian Empire
1938
British Commonwealth
of Nations
Each man symbol represents 10 million population ares
24| The Imperium Romanum, the predecessor of the British
Commonwealth of |
Nations, the characteristic worldimperium of our times, was of a different
structure. |
Like the Chinese Empire, it may be regarded as a gigantie fortification with
walls |
and towers. |
The Roman and Chinese Empires ; |
+
i
\
È
These empires were brought into contact with each other by trade in Chinese silk
and Roman metal, glass, dyestuffs, and drugs. |
| red: Roman yellow: Chinese _ castellated line: Chinese wall soreTheir knowledge of each other was rather vague, since this trade was in the
hands of some tribes and states in central and western Asia. The fact that a few
Romans penetrated into China was of no importance. Overseas trade was in its in-
fancy when the plague, internal disturbances, and diminishing resistance against the
invasions of barbarians menaced both empires and all possibility of peaceful inter-
course or well-organized war. _ |
The Chinese wall was built to protect the valley of the Yellow River and the
road to western dependencies against invasions by the Huns and other nomadic
tribes of the steppes in the north-west of China. This road to the west was fre-
quented in the first century after the birth of Christ, the period when the silk trade
with the Roman Empire flourished. The direction of the Silk Road changed accord-
ing to political necessity, and perhaps also according to natural conditions. It inter-
sected the Lop Nor oasis and followed the lake when, as a result of some natural
phenomenon, the lake altered its location. Walls protected China from external ag:
gression till the twelfth century. | |
The Roman walls, erected against disturbing invasions of uncivilized tribes, had
to protect a system of towns and a network of connecting roads.
Roman Towns, Roads and Walls
Idina sa Ae zs rity
sn lee: Br si eeen
ELTERN
ERROR ma SNe
REES oR
hs ‘
: aiene EN
Enten
AN)
EON Sas - snag : fs SRA ne,
RS Bien EE. : 3 u
ER IE 2 5 RE Sa RE BER : sea ‘
RR ? RR a EN
NNT
a soba a
NEN LOEDER tiem gE : N .
‘ Re Meen LK REDE
ns ethane
toon
eeCes
EN
a
eS ==
SEE RIES =
=
RE
IE
=
a pointer
‘ EN Sen
es Sn ER
a eine aan
Ent
=
aM
RUGRATS he
kN,
ie aon
Me is
Mis
Wv
tn a 9
Each symbol represents 100,000 populationThe Roman Empire was the prototype of Western government and jurisdiction.
_ Roman law, the direct ancestor of much Western law and a strong influence on all
modern law, arose from a specific historical situation. The Roman Empire united
the different civilizations of the Mediterranean region, comprising highly developed
but also primitive peoples, and occasionally destroyed centres of ancient civilization,
such as Carthage, Corinth, and other cities. The nucleus was agrarian, but commer-
cial evolution began very early. Roman peasants were the best warriors of the Medi-
terranean. They were eager for battle and fought bravely; the armies gained much
booty. Conquests often paid the army directly and enriched Roman citizens. Rome
became the capital of an enormous realm, but not a centre of manufacturing indus-
try as the Greek and Hellenistic cities did. It was the chief consumer and the
money centre. While Greek colonies had mostly been self-governing, Roman col-
onies depended upon the capital; they were new Roman areas populated by Roman
peasants and Roman soldiers. The military roads were well organized and were used
for travelling and by the Roman postal system as well as by the Roman legions. This
Mediterranean civilization was similar, in certain respects, to that of the last few
centuries. a |
In those ancient times the fact became known that sometimes profits rise as
products become scarce. The Egyptians destroyed papyrus when too much of it
grew and prices fell. a
Bureaucratic centralization became stronger in the eastern part of the Roman |
Empire. The later Byzantine Empire, which separated from Rome in early Chris-
tian times, had a very highly developed state organization, which even evolved
a sort
of state economy. In many respects modern attempts at planning a national economy —
can be based on Byzantine tradition more than on Roman. But the term “Byzan-
tinism” seems toindicate something.far from modern—an : antagonism ofWest and
East.
Both of the following world imperia were founded by nomads. They had uch |
lessinner stability. The Arabian Empire, primarily a military organization of no-
madic tribes, progressed step by step to urban life, science, technology, libraries,
universities, and other institutions which are the predecessors of modern ones. The
Arabs were verywell organized. They developed new cavalry tactics and thus forced |
Western countriesto changetheir methods of wagingbattle.
The Mongols,without close contact withagriculture and urban culture, know- |
| ing hardly anythingbut.apastoral life and war, often regarded towns as heaps of
stones that intruded on pasture-land. Along with the towns they destroyed |irriga-
tion systems and put an end tothe fertilityof the Euphrates and Tigris valleys,
which are still arid. Expanding iin vast but thinly populated regions, their Empire
~ embraced not more than twenty-five per:centof mankind, yet covered the largest area
ever united under one> government.They had a well-organized system of roads, =
.
omThe Arabian Empire | |
ie
es hak Parmer les ed a EN Be > .
5
: He RR N N A, eas TEBE
; . a 7 ey ti i ie, ;
et da u \
. 2" . .
8 ace Ke
a
u RT . :which was the basis of the political organization of a colossal empire. After the first
: steps of conquest and destruction the khans quickly adopted the culture of the sub- |
| | jugated people. The khans in China were the most modern governors of their time, =
Zn tolerating every religion and seeking the advice of craftsmen, engineers, and scien- |
tists of many nations. Perhaps Mongols promoted the art of printing, which spread
westward and influenced the Renaissance. The Mongols stopped their victorious in- |
ce
vasion of Europe when the Great Khan died (1227). | |
. | No European world imperium, according to our crude definition, was erected
during the Middle Ages. The British Commonwealth of Nations, the world im- |
perium of the last few centuries, does not command an overwhelming force as the >
Roman Empire did. Itis one of the big units that maintain the balance of world
| power,like the United States, the Soviet Union, France, Germany, Japan, and Italy.
| Its fleetis the largestin the world, though no longer so predominant as it was. Every
In growing naval power is a danger to Britain. Like any other power, the British Em- _ |
| pire cannot protect itself without allies. | |
The British Commonwealth of Nations OnThe British Commonwealth of Nations is a new type of empire, with its com-
ponents scattered over the whole earth. The map of the British Commonwealthin
itself symbolizes the fact that there are no more unknown territories. The neigh-
bours of the Roman Empire were of a lower type of civilization. The British Em-
pire has neighbours of equal social standing. An insular empire is today impossible.
The Romans called their neighbours “barbarians”; the Britons met most of theirs
as members of the League of Nations. These neighbours are scattered over the whole
world.
What people have thought of by “world unity” has varied. At the time of the
first discoveries in Central America pacifistic people spoke of a Christian peace
which excluded the Turks. The limitations of peace were narrower than geographi-
cal knowledge. About two hundred years later, still only Christian countries were
admitted to the family of civilized nations.
The Treaty of Westphalia signed by the German Emperor and the French King,
to settle disputes between a number of countries, was thought to be almost “world-
wide.” This is the region affected: | i
The Westphalian frosty afteroe
the That Years’ War in Germany, 1648
nes
ER EEE
i= RE SE
= RE
oe
is
in oe DEN Re
Beoe
ex
RehieBER
OR oi==
aeoni
de oee De ER
On
Bladesignatory powersandecountries concerned —
EL 0
The Christian nations—Turkey excluded—may best be visualized by the area
of the.countries which were brought together by the Congress of Vienna:
30| 5
af
| Ö
Gu
AR OON sd
= Sere) :
| “2
a
= Sad ee SEE
a ROE, es
© A ge : u. i 5
£ AE ©
e | kn =
cone - 7
2 5 ;And what of the Hapsburg Empire? It did not contain twenty-five per cent of the
world population, and it was not a consistent empire like the others mentioned above.
The Holy Roman Empire of the Middle Ages was unlike theancient Roman Empire.
Tt was a conglomeration of feudalistic regions. |
A Part
of Germany in the Sixteenth Century
Brandenburg
Kingdom of Poland
Archbishopric
of Magdeburg
Anhalt
Bishopric
of Merseburg
Silesia etc |
Mansfeld (belonging to the
‘Hapsburg countries
Electorate of Saxony
| The Hapsburg Empire was not based on a central power or a central organiza-
tion. By marriages, by heritage of titles and different rights, the Hapsburgs brought
under their rule the Netherlands and Spain, Hungary, Alsace, and parts of Italy.
Before the Hapsburgs came into power in Spain, about 1500, the expulsion of the
_ Moors and Jews had already started, during the fifteenth century, and with them the
most highly developed part of the population. Many libraries were destroyed, in
the name of the Holy Catholic Church. Courageous adventurers from Spain and
Portugal went to Africa and later westward, thus introducing their feudal customs
abroad.
Aztec weapons had never been forced to compete with European weapons before
the Spanish conquistadores landedon the Mexican coast about A.D. 1500. After the
conquest Indian kings and priests,‘commoners. and serfs perished in widespread ao
slaughter, but the decrease in population was a continuation of a decrease which
had begun before; war and human sacrifice had decimated the natives. Those who
were killed by the conquistadores had themselves been killers and tormentors of
their fellow-beings: De NINE BE OEPopulation of Latin America
Each man symbol represents 10 million population
red, full: Indian. black, outlined: white black, full: Negro | red, outlined: mixed
After that cities with temples, palaces, houses, mud and log huts, monuments
and tombs, paintings and manuscripts were destroyed or buriedand old traditions
were concealed
iin a new social order. New customs were combined with old ones
33Population of Latin America
N
if
IBANIH
IRRE EINE
Each man symbol represents 10 million population
red, full: Indian black,outlined: white black, full: Negro red, outlined: mixed
tSOTYPE idwhich continued their existence under some cloak: “This dark Madonna was the
of Christ.” The Europeans
heathen goddess Tonantzin before she was the mother
could not always destroy or hide the ancient customs and beliefs.
Later the Spaniards found that the silver and gold they wanted had to be taken
from inside mountains; they needed Indian labour. As landlords they also needed
Indian labour to cultivate plantations. As adventurers they needed Indian wives and
80 created a population of mixed blood.
The attitude of the North American colonists, at least in the Northern states,
_was different. They were settlers with wives and children, and most of them needed
Indian soil. In Latin America Indian traditions are beginning to be re-established;
in English-speaking North America Indian reservations are maintaining what re-
mains of old tribal communities. En |
The red Indians could not stand hard work. They died in masses under the
pressure of their masters. That is one reason why Negroes were transported into
certain American regions, and sometimes priests supported this action in the hope
that their poor red brothers would be saved. When commerce and profit developed,
this new slavery was exploited jin a flourishing trade; the N egroes were packed like
sardines in tins:
nm aa
nnIMa | | |
ln in A A act,
YW VT Be STEILE HUT
4 =OC I as a RUE IT a Er
Dn The efficient merchants ofthat timeso0 organized the traffic in slaves that the |
loss by deaths did not nullify the advantage of cheap transport. At first slavery
helped to expand feudalismona new basis, always combined with commercial or- _
a ganization. At the same time the oldfeudal organization of society was disappearing
in Europe. In England and othercountries of northern Europe the industrialrevo-
ution was loosening the patriarchal relationbetween lords and dependants. Greatmasses of proletarians were rising. Under changing conditions the colonists of
America adopted the Spanish scheme of importing Negro labour, and they continued
to do so up to the middle of the nineteenth century, on a larger scale than ever before.
These transplantations of masses of men contributed much to the unification of
mankind by adding millions of primitives to the masses of proletarians. This has had
an important influence on the present social situation, especially in the United States.
Not only the fact that people of African origin are living in America, but also the fact
that they were brought there against their will, that they were separated from their
families, that they were forced to work for their masters, that they were bought and
sold like goods, that they were bred like animals, that they were slaves—not only
slaves
in the sense of antiquity, slaves by misfortune, but slaves of a so-called low
and detestable origin—this could not but deeply impress the unfortunates and end
in insurrections. Many humanitarians supported the slaves’ claim for freedom, and
even governments suggested the abolition of slavery. Sometimes that meant weaken-
ing a competitor. When the slaves were really freed, they found themselves on the
lowest proletarian level, unable to return to the free, primitive life of their ancestors.
No longer dependent on the decision of one man, they were dependent on the general
business situation like other proletarians; they lost their work and earnings when |
some producer could not find buyers for his goods. They worked for the lowest wages.
When they tried to unite with organized labour they were often rejected as undesir-
able competitors with too low a standard of living. However black and white labour-
ers may be separated or united, nevertheless their interests in general are the same, |
and often they are still fighting the same foe. 7 .
When the Dutch and the English sailed out with their large fleets, with new
arms, with new theories and far-reaching plans, to come to blows with the Spaniards
and the Portuguese, they attacked another world unity which claimed to be the true —
successor of the Roman Empire: the Catholic Church. The Catholic, ‘ ‘all-embrac-
ing” Church was the large body that united the conglomeration of states in the Mid- E
_dle Ages. As head of this Church, the pope had not only to decide on the fate of —
human souls. He exacted obedience from Christian rulersin all matters. |
The Catholic Church was a centre of civilization. It promoted progress in agri- |
culture, andin a great many countries it was the only organizer of scientific workin
the Middle Ages. All philosophies and the ancient classic authors were studied
within the Church. The Latin language, the language of the Church, was the one |
scientific language of all Christian nations. Studentsand teachers of different na-
tions met at the universities. Scholars travelling from university to university uni- —
fied human thinking. The Catholic Church created a common basis of music. The
Gregorian chant took the place of the multiplicity of scales used in folk-song. The
scholars movedin an atmosphere of unity though their brothers might be fighting =
| in opposing 2armies. Yet evenn the soil their feet touched was the subject of dispute. |
5The pope instigated the crusades and decided which of the newly discovered
regions were to be added to the possessions of which crown. The last decision of
world dimensions was the division of the earth between the Spanish and Portuguese
conquerors in 1493 by PopeAlexander VI.
Division of the Earth by the Pope
blue: Spanish territories green: Portuguese territories — Be rl
About a century later both empires were united for sixty years. They governed,
according to the decision of the pope, the whole extra-European world which they
had discovered and the oceans. And thisgigantic :realm existedin imagination only.
At this moment other European forces wereripe to destroy the Spanish-Catholic
unity of conquest andmissions. Many European countries made discoveries and con-
quests, and the predominance of the Iberian peninsula vanished. The idea of one
_ all-embracing Catholic Church disappeared|for diplomats and men in the street, but
not for the ruling groups of the Church itself. In principle the whole worldis still a
a domain of the pope: inall countries there are bishoprics, and every square mile be-
longs to a province of the Church. A schism split the Church into two parts: the
| __Roman-Latin-German territory in the west and the Greek-Slavic territory in the east. _
The Catholic Church was a centralized body, while the Orthodox churches were in-
| dependent. The Patriarch of Constantinople wasonly ‘ ‘primusinter pares. >Later
the Reformation. split the Roman Catholic Church: one part constituting the re-
oo maining Roman Catholic Church,and the rest
st composed of different “Protestant”bodies: Calvinists, Lutherans, Anglicans, and other groups. Thus the world power
of the Catholic Church dwindled. a |
The former ideal unity—one pope, one religion, one emperor, one colonial em-
pire—crashed. The present picture of the world bears no resemblance to this old
centralized conception.
The Modern Division of the Earth
HER
BE
te
Be
black: free American states, formerly partly European possessions . ~ blue: Spanish territories
red: British Commonwealth of Nations, French, Italian, Dutch, Belgian, green: Portuguese territories |
Danish territories ee | dark grey: Soviet Union _ 5 ISOTYPE
A bird’s-eye view reveals:(1) formerly dependent regions which have freed
themselves: the Latin American states from Spain and Portugal; the United States
from England; (2) the Russian territories as the biggest continental entity; (3) the
old states of eastern Asia which have resisted the white invasion; and a group of
states in Asia and Europe not connected with modern conquests (or which have lost
former extra- European territories, suchas Germany and Sweden); and (4) western
European countries which were the heirs of the former possessions of Spain and
Portugal, leaving only small residues iin Africa, (5) Spain, and (6) Portugal.
How was power transferred from thesouth to the north? How did the Medi
terranean lose its significance? Why did the European minds turn from Moham-
medan, Arabian, and Turkish problems toothers peculiarly Western? Why did the
maritime commerce of Genoa and Venicecome to an end? A new type of conqueror
arose in the north: the militant merchant, a type far superior to the militant mis-
sionary. He was backed by more aggressive groups: rich upstarts who produced
goods for all the world. The new economic order developed first where the authorityof the pope was resisted. Still based on
Scholasticism, but freed from ecclesias-
tical prohibitions, science developed in
all fields, improving techniques of pro-
duction and navigation, establishing new
laws and customs and state organizations, European Seafarers
opening new vistas of power and success. Starting from the
From the moment that the Atlantic Atlantic Coast
became a connecting bridge and ceased
to be a barrier, all the nations of the At-
lantic coast of Europe assumed new and |
important positions:
‘The Mediterranean Sea was‚ rele- oo
gatedto the background. Venice and _
Genoa were at a disadvantage as com- | |
petitors because of the somewhat longer ee
voyage their vessels had tomake. 5
Dutchmen and Englishmen attacked : . ; .
the Iberian Catholic empires where they — 7
were weakest. They built large fleetsand
destroyed the Iberian maritime suprem- |
acy. The Netherlands were far advanced.
As early as 1500 their townsweregreat. a
and powerful, comparableonly with
_ those of Italy, with which they ıwerein
‘manifold contact. The Dutch art of that
time testifies to this binational inter- En
course. The towns bear witness to Dutch
supremacy over the nations around the en
x >; North Sea. ;The Dutch held their position up to the eighteenth century, by which time
the English had united and developed their stronger forces. About 1700 the Dutch
fleet was the largest in the world. Dutch ships went to America, where the Dutch
founded New Amsterdam, which later became English and was renamed New York. |
The Dutch voyaged to India, the Malay archipelago, China, and Japan, but as mer-
chants, not as prophets. At their side the British and French began their commer-
cial penetration of Asia. Like the Dutch, they started as traders. Conquest was the
second step. Fighting merchants occupied great areas of India before governmental
forces came into action. Commercial corporations with administrative powers
formed the backbone of European expansion, especially of the British Empire. As
late as the last few years of the nineteenth century British companies fought the
natives with their own forces, aided by Imperial troops in emergencies. A part of
the tradition of present-day governments is commercial. The Opium War was
fought for purely commercial reasons; the Congo territory was first a private enter-
prise of the King of Belgium. In supporting commerce present-day governments
merely follow tradition.
The evolution of the states whichwere in competition with Spain and Portugal
was furthered not only by commercial predecessors of governmental institutions but
also by groups of adventurers and pirates, some of them glowing with patriotism.
Such permanent organizations, partly illegal, partly tolerated and secretly supported
by governments, are of importance in human history. Roman generals had to fight _
pirates in great wars. In later centuries there were buccaneers of Saracen, British,
French, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese origin, and the Barbary pirates of North
Africa infested the Mediterranean up to a century ago. The freebooters of the sev-
enteenth century organized a permanent naval force which harried the Caribbean
Sea and Central America, and aidedin destroying the Spanish and Portuguese mo-
nopoly as well as that of the Catholic Chureh—to the great satisfaction of the Dutch.
_and the British.
The British Empire, transformed into the British Commonwealth of Nations,
is a new type of worldimperium, in a period ofincreasing centralization of internal
and external power. Pan-Americanism tends to developin a similar direction. Per-
haps this is a characteristic of modernity in its infancy.
| If we adhere to the view that tradition and old conditioned reactionsare essen- __
tial in human organization, it is fair to ask: What are British traditions? In Roman ©
times the inhabitants of the British Isles were not good sailors. Scandinavian invad-
ers who ultimately became their rulers taught them sailing, but also much more: |
the Norsemen may be regarded as the creators of a new type of empire.
Norse war-lords and their followers did not establish a real state community.
. They went to those countries where they found the most wealth and the least resist- ER
ance.Norsemen « came to Novgorod. (Holmgard) and Constantinople (Mikligard),as far as Boston), to France (Normandy) and
to Iceland and Vinland (probably |
Sicilyin the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries. All these groups together, includ- |
ing vassals and servants of different birth, constituted a certain national complex. _
Norsemen established permanent communities in Normandyin the tenth and elev-
enth centuries, andin Sicilyin the eleventh century served as auxiliary troops and | |
bodyguards for different knights and kings. In this capacity they may have had to | |
fight one another occasionally. The communities of Norsemen often came to one an-
other's aid when they were in military difficulties. Co-operation between inde-
pendent groups was characteristic of them. We know of treaties made by Norsemen;
on their side a series of names appears, on the other side but one name, as the repre-
sentative
of a great empire. u | | ;
red areas: Scandinavia and Northmen’s states
light red: tributary nations
green: Russia, under Northmen’s sovereignty dk a | En
red outline: coasts invaded by the Vikings black lines: direction of expeditions som BB |
This was the Norsemen’s nationality and influence. |
Bu The Norse sea-kings became land-kings with court and country. In England a
B “Vikingization” began,and the English people,an amalgamation of different bloods, |
went to sea as the Vikings had done before them, influenced perhaps by Viking tra-
dition.Co-operation between independent groups became a British characteristic
7 after periods of fighting and exploitation. Probably Anglo- Saxons forced a great oe
-: | many people to learn that co-operation iis unavoidable among groups which had once ;
been enemies. The one great loss that the British Empire sustained. was the colo- esnies that are now the United States, and that loss must be attributed to a temporary
lack of co-operation within the ruling classes in Great Britain. Further losses by
emigration of the English and Irish population, and the persistence of the Irish
question, are to be similarly explained. But these experiences were not wasted:
the changes that took place, especially during the last few decades, are remarkable.
On the Treaty of Versailles a series of names appears representing the British Em-
pire: those of the delegates of all dominions and other British territories. Accord-
ing to the Statute of Westminster passed by the House of Commons in 1931, “every
self-governing member of the Empire is master of its destiny”
and the Dominions are
“autonomous communities within the British Empire and freely associated.” This
is the British Commonwealth of Nations: | | Bu
British Expansion
red: British at the moment red outline: formerly British blue: United States . worm
| British expansion was like that of the Vikings, but on a larger scale. More
people emigrated to foreign countries. It seems that many Vikings left Scandinavia
because they had conflicts with the governor and preferreda free life abroad to one
of oppression at home. So, too, the Britons. Many of the emigrants were political or
religious refugees; some were criminals—for example, many of those who were sent
to Australia. Nevertheless|most of them retained their nationality and dependency
ana de |on the mother country, more even than the Vikings, who left their country
in youth,
when political organizations were in the making, and sometimes returned in old age.
The spread of Britons over the whole earth, the spread of the English language as an
international means of communication, contributed much to the unification of man-
kind.No text on this page.
Urbanization, Births and Deaths
In Great Britain
about 1840
about 1870
about 1900
about 1930
About 1930
in Chile
in Japan
in Germany
in Australia.
Each man symbol represents 10Sloof the population Each green symbol represents 5 births.
red: in cities of 100,000 and over _— per 1000 population
\ | | Each black symbol represents 5 deaths
per 1000 population
ISOHTYPE
Urbanization iis a characteristic of modernity.
Chileis, roughly speaking, at the stage at which England was a hundred years
ago, and Australia is as well off as England is today. Urbanization brings about
many changes in the life of modern men. The drop in
i death-rates tells the story ofmodern public health organization and
of health education in general. Nations
have learned to control not only the
plague but also cholera, tuberculosis,
syphilis, and other infectious diseases.
The rational method of combating death
is the result of social behaviour based on
the application of science, on the attempt
to anticipate and control events. Typical
| En _ of this trend is the spread of birth-con-
| Birth -Rates _ | trol and hence of a decreasing birth-rate
ina Central European Town all over the world. |
166 at ol ad
1656 at at nt al ot od hee | 1:
Ga CEP GEV GES CD END In spite of a decreasing birth-rate,
populations have tended to grow in our
time. The world might be divided into
three regions: the Western world, in-
ve 1830 | as.
ofse eluding both Americas, Europe, and the
Soviet Union (white area and white
00000... man symbols); the Far East, including
ah China, Japan, and their dependencies,
1913 ee _ such as Tibet (grey area and grey man
enne EE | symbols); and the Southern world, in-
| Bu eluding Africa, the Near and Middle
Te EE East, with India and the Malay archipel-
Ee e ago, the islands
of the southern Pacific,
Beh symbol represents
1 birth per 100 population © and Australia (black area and black
2 | FT mansymbols). It may be asked whether
the growth of population iis particularly
confined to one of these regions; the
answer is no: ;$8
er 2
& Br 5
ER -
3ö
7© 8
Big |
Sess© #2
5
Sea
mY, 2
en
= $ a
oO 8 8
= Ë 5Oo
Golan 8 =
oO a
af of -
© < € _®
=,
@ = © ID
[=a 5 G ZZ:
m Mi
%The Growth of Mankind
ite: the two Americas, Europe, the Soviet Union grey: region of Chinese and Japanese population
black: other parts of the world
fi LL
bib RRRS
bid
Each symbol represents 100 million men
AANAARR sog)
47An intense growth of population is common to these three regions despite their
differences in economic and technical development. When “technical develop-
ment” or “mechanization” by the use of coal, petroleum, and water-power is visu-
alized, we have this distribution of mechanization: —
Mechanization of the Wor
America, Europe, Soviet Union
„Southern Teniories NEN en en, _fFarEast On En | on
Each rectangle represents 5 million squaremiles | =En : |
Each man symbol represents 100 million population ES | EEE |
- Each red symbol represents 50,000. million kilowatt hours | =
produced annually from coal, petroleum and water -power 7 ee ol
| The differences are very. great, despite the backwardness of such Western
“countries as Latin America and the Soviet Union. The same is true of the density of
_ population: To the regionsof high density—Europe, India, central China—vast
empty regions have been added, especially iinı Europe and India “
If we select single countries—for instance, all the countries of about twenty
| million inhabitants and over—the differences are even greater:
Power Used per Capita in 1936
Nn 7 | United States
| Mexico
Brazil |
Great Britain
France |
Spain
| Italy
Germany
Poland
Rumania |
Soviet Union
China
| Japan |
_Each red symbol represents 500 kilowatt hours st ord ne
produced annually from coal, petroleum and by water- power
Fuel is partly used to produce heat by combustion, and not only
for power.
To a large extent, power is used for expanding the apparatus
of production or in
49preparation for war. Though our chart cannot give more than a rough idea, never-
theless it shows a common attribute of theso-called“Big Seven”: the United States,
Great Britain, France, Italy, Germany, the Soviet Union, and Japan. All of these
use 1000 kilowatt-hours or more per inhabitant annually. This might lead to the
conclusion that a state of about twenty millions and over must reach a certain tech-
nological level if it is to exercise any international influence of importance. The
highest technological level accompanies the highest level of living-conditions.
A considerable part of the power in the United Statesis usedin automobiles.
Great differencesin power-consump-
Automobiles per 200 Population tion between countries may be ex-
plained by showing the number of
| automobiles used:
United States (om
Mexico
Brazil
Great Britain fab Ka al @ m = =
. Spain | |
| \ Italy —
Germany
Poland a
RE . ; Rumania En
5 - siUnion 5Automobiles per 200 Population
TOS aE ai ie Ee eS ae
$i i Gy Gas Sn Gas si a
fefi
fi faThe number of “robots” working for man is growing more rapidly than the
population. Mechanization in manufacture is increasing in all countries in spite of
the fact that economic depressions and other social factors hinder or prevent the
full use of all natural resources and technical equipment.
Horse-Power Used in Manufacturing Industries. United States
1849
1869
1889
1909
1929
Each man symbol represents 1 million \ wage -earners in manufacturing industries On Ä
Each horse symbol represents5 million horse - power ES Br
Au this machinery iis mostlyused 40 to 48 hours weekly. Actually it could be
used 100 or 120 hours weekly and be of more benefit. | Though not used to their full
eapacity, machines have caused an enormous growth in production andcon-
_sumptionwhich mightiimprove still further the living-conditions of mankind. The
same is true of agriculture. Today much less human labour is necessary to produce _
food for human consumption. This is one reason why theproportion of rural popu-
_ lation to urbanmay decrease without imperilling the general food. supply. The “iron; E
| horse” has become the, farmer’ s best friend: | Zr u. csHorse-Power Used in Agriculture. United States _
1849
1869 |
1889
1909
1929
Each man symbol represents1 million engaged in agriculture |
Each horse symbol represents 5 million horse-power black: machinery blue: trucks \ | rei
| The technological progressof agriculture which has contributed to make the
| growth of populationin all parts of the world possible began before the industrial
_ revolution reached the Southern and Eastern world. The Chinese developed meth-
ods ofintensive use of the soil centuries ago. Long ago they learned to fertilize their
plants systematically, but without developing natural sciences. Neither India nor the
Europe of the pre-industrial agereached this level; the European peasant had to be
_ taught by scientists to adopt newmethods of feedingthe soil. For the Western world
fertilizingis a modern scientific advance; for the Eastern worldit is traditional. The
mechanization of agriculture didnot make much:progressin the Easternworld where
. single plants and combinations ofcrops were cultivated by hand. Tractors, com-
pines, and similar machines can beused only on large tracts. — |
The growing western mechanization changed the whole of life, especially the
_worker’s life. Weaving, forinstance, was formerly |carried on in the workers’ homes,
En wives and children doing their share.When:men, women, and children had to go
into the factory for long working days, production iincreased, but home life of the |
Bu old type ° was8 destroyed.” | | En |1845
Each blue symbol represents 50 million pounds totalproduction | |
Each black man symbol represents 10,000 home weavers A
Each red man symbol represents 10,000 factory weavers _ | |
. By this separation of home andplace of work the burden of labour grew much|
heavier. Moreover, the industrial revolution started by lengthening the working
time; machinery created a new type of oppression instead of freeing men from the
necessity of long hours of slow han „work. The machine, which should be the best
friend of man, seemed to be his enemy. The workers often destroyed the machines
which made them work eighteen hours a day or not at all, leaving them unemployed _
Home and Factory Weaving in England
1820 A rn
1830 MAN
itertendeertednrddeen
I LLLL
ELL
we LLLLLLLELLLL]
ee LLLLLLLLELLELLELLLLL]
Each blue symbol represents 50 million pounds total production
Each black man symbol represents 10,000 home weavers B
Each red man symbol represents 10,000 factory weaversand without bread. After decades of such disturbances in all countries, workin g-
n world,
conditions improved. Child labour was abolished in most parts of the Wester more
female labour was reduced, working hours were shortened. A new life, with
leisure, began. More leisure means a richer personal life, and therefore a happier
one, according to modern ideas. Oo | |
Sweden. a nn |
Working Hours in Manufacturing Trades Suicides Birth-Rates
1756-1775 g
1776-1795 g + soto
+ ne a ar a a ar a ae |
1796-1815 4
1816-1835 mand
oe tt 2
FO12R12 K
1836 1855
1856-1875 g ttt A AKO
HT eet
1876-1895 4
“TTT soe
1916-1935 GOOG a Ge m |
oe +25 suicides | . 5 births per 1000 population
pert million population Oe B
Customs and tradition were alt by
ere ive work in factories and offices, .
collectd
rs, books,
by the wide circulation of newspape
of rational activities,
_ by the expansion
and other modern means of commallunica tion, which rapidly reduced the number of |
_ illiterates. These changes cannotbe depicted statistically. Still, it is possible to
answer some questions indirectly. What part, for instance, does religion play in thelife of our time? The increase of the suicide-rate and the decrease of the birth-rate
may be regarded as signs of the weakening influence of the Church. Both suicide
and birth-control were forbidden by many Christian communities, and still are.
Suicides per 100,000 population ___Literates per 25 population
uN dE i ae OR
ne 1870 HEHEH ttt SLI PITT?
ooo HEEE HEE ttt JIIIIITIIT STS IIS.
wao FEET ttt OYLLL
Peso HEEFT SSAA TTT.
ooo Hrtrttrttt tt 11/1/ MSLSLLLLL
LM 5
DE a 1
ITTY TU
TT
TT PIT
I
SY aso ttt OO 1717/4d
1900 Hrrrtt 1/11/14
JT
930 Frrtrtrttt LA ALLL
Nerja THtt 4/11/40 TIDI,
wo wr VAM MMS
1930 an an ans an7LLL TET TTT
ileo Frrtrtrttt HEHEH +. ENPAMA
1900 FEEEETETET rar
1930 FEET terreAz ADTTITITTT ddd FTIR
WATS TTI ITI.
Russia |(Soviet Union)
1880 TTT
900 ttt . uau u ER VLA EN
1925 Hitt 5 0 SUGIGITITT IVD
The number of suicides cannottbe used :as a measure of unhappiness. Despite _
the horror and anguishof the World War,the suicide-rate decreased. It turns out vo
that suicideis not a major causeofdeathandthat its continuous increase hardly iin-
fluences the falling death-rate. Nevertheless the increase in the suicide-rateis an _
important symptom of modernity. Two centuries ago philosophers hesitated to
speak freely about suicide. Now the trend to self-destruction is common to all Chris- a
tian nations, though.very remarkable differences can be shown between.various U
| countries and groups of differentChristian faith. EN 5Assuming that the death of relatives and friends brings sorrow and that the loss
of children makes parents unhappy, it must be agreed that the causes of unhappi-
ness are decreasing in spite of the increase in the suicide-rate. The history of a fam-
ily of two hundred years ago is very different from the history of a modern family:
Four Generations of a Family
in the seventeenth century _ in the nineteenth century
1600
1850
1650 ,
Plague 1657
1900
Each bar represents Man's span oflife
green: 0 to 30 years dn en
‘red: 30to 60 years -—S_ Alll the brothers and sisters of a person, of a person's father,
blue: over 60 years grandfather and great- grandfatber are included sont
Here a particular family has been selected in which the number of births did
not decrease excessively, so as to show how much less frequently the death of a rela-
tive shocks now than formerly. Centuries ago it happened more than once that mem-
bers of the same family diedin the same year of the plague (for iinstance, the plague
of 1657). or
r some otherepidemic. |
56We must realize to what extent un-
happiness caused by death has changed.
In this special case no child in the last
generation died; but the average life-
span was already lengthening in earlier
generations. The most striking differ-
ence is that formerly not a single mem-
ber of this particular family reached the
age of sixty. Men, too, died earlier. It
should be mentioned that several who
survived after 1930 had been soldiers in
the World War.
That infants survive is quite the
rule now; their death has become an ex-
ception. Here are typical examples of
the trend of infant mortality:
Infant Deaths per 100 Births
aoc
eier
oe
aEee ite.
An
eeFeaaZnEERE
5 Aid x;
in England and Wales
in New York City _
il tiitit
The decrease in birth-rate and in
infant mortality, the increase in literacy
and in suicide-rate,
the increase in mech-
anization and in urbanization may be
regarded as signs of modernity. These
me ttt tiiiti
Western trends do not depend upon any
particular social and political order; they I. ttt
are foundin the United States andin the
| Soviet Union,in France and iin Germany. | itBecause of lower birth- and death-rates, the “trees of population” tend to de-
_ velop a larger “crown.” Successive generations may expect to overlap for a long time:
Age Groups in England and Wales
1871 Age
males | Ü over sch \ females |
ff 70.80 ith |
HERE 60-70 TT a
||||||) 50-40 iiitiittt
GER 40.50 AR it.
MILL zozo KAAAKAKAKE HAES
ne RR 20-30 KhAkAAAAKK ANKER
A 1 ed
iii) rekene EEEN 0-10Kinda biitittti bddditiii
| years
tome80sit
Em 70-80ikea on
“tii rem 60-70 Aükäkääkkkhikt a
TN HER50.60Ak Art dik
tit ua HERR 40-50 A |
. ri aaER zozo AAMRRLAARL AAAAAAAEEE KAAAAAAAAK k
ttt mt OR 20-20 CETETTULCRTITTTTPtetitiitr@rted
AR10-20 ie
MN net nat LITT 0-10 hihi nn Uinttittid \
years BEE
Nn Each symbolrepresents 100,000persons | Bez
wee
u Should modern.men be able to ‘apply:scientificmanagement to‘production De
oo and distribution, manyretired people would be able to live on pensions granted by the
er government. This would involve no lengthening of working hours, but a systematic
use of all our scientific knowledge, technical devices,and natural resources. There
would benosuch anomalies as the destruction of coffee or restriction in the produc- _
tion of cotton and other goods. er eee LeThe trend of modernity is towards longer life and increasing technical equip-
ment. Good plumbing is found in many homes. The use of automobiles, telephones,
and radios is general. Some countries introduce one technical innovation, others an-
other. In the Soviet Union, for instance, telephones were in general use before bath-
tubs. In Germany they are more common than automobiles; in France the reverse is
true.
Telephones and Automobiles per 200 Population
France
Germany | EEE
If a country is “modern” in one field, itis notnecessarily ‘ modern” in all the
others. A general or average‘“index of modernity” ‘conceals certain peculiarities —
which are important not onlyin technologically appraising single countries but in
understanding the whole process of modernization, whichis the subject of this survey.
| Certain qualitiesare so closely correlated with others that one servesto char-
acterize the whole group. If thereis a very high rate of mortality ina country, oe
7 the rateof morbidityor the birth- rate |is not likely to be extremely low. There: Ee |fore, if we try to arrange nations accord- Death-Rate Birth-Rate
ing to two grades of death-rate we arrive
generally at the same result as if we ar- United States
range them according
to two grades of
birth-rate: Netherlands
Germany
india
Japan
No such correlation is found in de-
Death _ rate grey: below 15 °/ 00
grees of mechanization or urbanization
black: above 15°/9
or the waning influence of Church and
Birth-rate grey: below 25°/o9
custom, though both trends are parallel.
black: above 25°/o9
The suicide-rate might be used as evi-
dence of the Church’s decline, if we bear
in mind the anti-suicide tradition in
Christian nations and the pro-suicide tra-
dition in Japan, especially in the ruling
classes: 000000
United States
Netherlands
Germany
| Even in Christian nations few sui-
cides may correspond with a high degree
India
of mechanization. In the Netherlands,
with its strong religious traditions and
family life, the suicide-rate is low, but
_mechanization iishigh. |
_ Silhouettes, which are simplifiedin-
Death-rate grey: below 15%oo =
tegrations of various qualities, bring out
black: above 1I5%gq
the different features of different nations
_and the degree of modernization of vari- Suicide - rate grey: below 2%ooo —
| black: above 2%ooo —
‘ous groups.> Silhouettes |
7 United States a fo France |
| v er 7
| | average length of life of female population (each unit 5 years) | |
| suicides (each unit 25 per1 million population)
| literacy (eachunit 10°/o | | | a
| | radio sets (each unit1 per 100 population) — . | en
| | Some countries are very similar. For instance, Italy and Spain, or the United
poe States and Great Britain. But Mexicois of the Spanish type and on a lower level. a
oe | _ Germany would resemble the Netherlands very much (see the silhouettes above), ed
| _ were it not for the suicide-rate, expressing the vigour of different traditions.These silhouettes are very incomplete. They do not show the degree of personal
freedom in a society, and other factors, but they do show a great many facts. It is pos-
sible to imagine that the life-span could be lengthened in other countries to the
degree that it has been lengthened in Australia and that it will be so lengthened in
the near future, but it is impossible to imagine exactly how we can control the se-
cretions of the glands of the human body and thus prolong youth. Nor is it possible
to imagine the social consequences of such control. Would there be a struggle for
glands and hormones as there is now a struggle for wealth?
The effect of using technological aids in our daily life and of reducing working
hours can be foreseen, but not the changes caused by ¢cosmic rays and other extra-
terrestrial influences. |
Granting a trend towards longer life and more leisure, is there an interna-
tional trend towards eliminating the insecurity of living-conditions? Is there any
sign that war will be abolished or internal restlessness alleviated? Or of cherishing
and expanding freedom of expression and scientific thought and action?un mu nen
:
6;
5Man’s daily life, his happiness and unhappiness, depends upon old and new
customs and institutions, upon a great many agencies. The modernity of living-
conditions depends, first of all, upon technical equipment
and natural resources. A
bird’s-eye view of the interconnexions between all parts of a society in action makes
it possible to analyse the state of the world or the structure of a single country. The
general scheme remains the same:
Economic Scheme
Use of natural
resources
* * }
Semi- | Kl
manufacturing |
Manufacturing |. | | |
Distribution
and service
z alninininin
Ei i inioinin
Each man symbol represents young people people working _. housewives, old people r
5 per thousand population —_— On OO within economic scheme students etc. ISOTYPE TM
“
Such a scheme leads to the question: How is it possible to increase the produc-tion of food and drink, shelter and recreation, the building
of houses, schools, and
theatres and to reduce working hours, the number of accidents, disease, and other
burdens? Examination of such a question may be begun with purely technical facts
without regarding the social structure which is the basis of all human actions.
The different regions of the world provide different raw materials, such as:
pig iron (Fe = ferrum), rubber, cotton, wool, linen, rayon, and silk, |
Raw Materials
United States5 and Canada | Soviet Union
Lafin-America
Each foil coloured symbol represents I10% of world production on0 ship: exported. outlined, &on white ship: imported ee rd
2. cotton, wool, linen, rayon, silk
u. ‚Pig iron,rubber, ec ;
en This rough scheme distinguishes six greatregions:a) the United States and _
Moe Canada, with their predominantly English-speaking population; (2) Latin America, —
agroupof similar nations;(3) Europewithoutthe Soviet Union; (4) the Soviet |
| Union; (5) theFar East, composed of Chinaand Japan; (6) the Southern terri-
“tories, containing Africa, theNearandMiddle East, southern Asia, and Australia.
Most of the raw materials produced iinthis Southern world are used by the Western
EE countries. :Inspite of all artificiallyproduced.substitutes Western industrial centres _
cannot be expected toachieveself-sufficiency iin rawr materials in the near future.Food and Drink
United States and Canada Soviet Union
| Sonder Territories
r
Each full coloured symbol represents10% of weld production’ on ship: exported — outlined, on whiteship: imported | on
' | \ En . ae | wheat and rye,corn, rice, potatoes, soy beans, sugar, caffe, cocon, tea en, nol
| These two‘schemes tell thestory.ofmanyimportant conflicts. Rubbercomes.
from the Southern world.TheUnitedStates must buyrubber abroad, and espe _
cially from British and Dutchterritories.Ithas made desperate efforts to renovate _
used rubber and to produce substitutes for rubber synthetically. The Southern world
hasto provide the Westernworld with much raw material for industrial centres and
with many foodstuffs, leaving the massesof population iin the South on a low sub-
sistence level. Not onlythe ruling classes,but also the workers of Anglo-Saxon Amer
ica andof Europe participate in1 these benefits, paid?for by |the Southern workers.Degrees of industrialization can be gauged by the amount of coal and petroleum |
used for producing heat and power and the amount of water-power used for generat-
ing electricity. With the actual power, produced by coal, petroleum, and water, is
shown the potential energy which could be generated by running water. There are
great reserves in the Southern world. There are also great resources of coal and pe-
troleum undergroundin the Soviet Union, whichis beginning to develop their pos-
sibilities and which may before long assume a commanding industrial position
among the nations of the world.
. Sources of Power
United States and Canada
| Latin-America _ | Ze Southern Territories 1 Far East |
Each symbol represents 25,000 million kilowatt hours produced annually — sourcesoftpower: coal, petroleum, water
te pe rs : 7 with Aaltning Bash being used B
TR .
What iis true ofsingle ©countries :iss also true of larger regions of the world: A
= wider use of power is anindication of iincreasing modernity, andis connected with
ahigher urbanization, which is in turn ; an indication of modernity.
68The two are closely related: ©
Population oo O
United States and Canada Soviet Union | |
Latin-America | Southern Territories | Far East
_ Each man symbol represents
10 million population red: in cities of 100,000 population and moreThe two are closely related:
Population
United States and Canada Soviet Union
Latin-America Southern Territories Far East
| HeTITETE OT
ee ToTHTHOE
ee THERETO
ee THRERONTS
| FOTOROTET?
ee OAREEEFEEE
LLL
Each man symbol represents 10 million population red: in cities of 100,000 population and more
SOTYPESubsistence levels vary. The highestis to be found ;in Anglo-Saxon countries,
such as England, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. Thisis a standard
for the white population, though not all British subjects reach it. The standard of
the Hindu population of India is actually not much higher than that of the Chinese.
The situation around the Pacific is not unique. Contiguous countries have different
subsistence standards, the better-off maintaining theirs by closing their frontiers to
the immigration of cheap labour. One way of judging subsistence levels is to picture
the consumption of sugar per inhabitant. |
Annual Sugar Consumption per Head in Countries around the Pacific
Japanese gig Canada
aAAAA
AA AAA
nm fh A,
China de | United States gg N
A R
AA
Australia gf New Zealand
a
A
a
n
| Each symbol represents 10 pounds of sugar |
| black: home production white: importedIt is a matter of fact that precisely those countries with a high subsistence level
can feed a much larger population with the products of their soil, without lowering
the standard, and that those with a low level cannot do much more than extract a
livelihood from the soil. . | |
Compare the actual population with the potential population—that is, the
population which might be fed with the products of the native soil, produced by
_ present technical means—and a new type
of density is obtained. Countries may be
divided into overcrowded, crowded, and more or less empty ones. Japan proper
depends partly upon imports. China produces no surplus food.
re
eb Site a iN
Ae
Area per Head in Countries around the Pacific
60°
anpese
JapEm ir
a
©
Canada en
China gj . | United States I
Australia gap | New Zealand da En
En _ Each square represents 0.01 square mile en |
| . | ol Ennn
an
Area per Head in Countries around the Pacific JOE SE
60°
Japanese Canada .
Empire |
China . 0 United States '
Australia ' New Zealand .
Each square represents 0.01 square mile
ISOTYPE th
71Before general measures were taken to prevent them, there were considerable
dislocations of population. Many Chinese left their country when there was a famine.
Many Japanese migrated because of overcrowding. The resultis clearly visiblein
the change of the population of Hawaii, which had suffered great loss from infec-
tious diseases which were imported from Europe, but which are not usually fatal
to Europeans, who have acquired a certain immunity to them.
Population of Hawaii
1830
1850
1870
1890
1910
1930
Hawaiian Chinese, Japanese, Korean | Filipino White
Part- Hawaiian |
Each symbol represents 25,000 population erh u
_ Despite many regulatory laws, migration is not yet the subject of international
; planning, Sometimes people are forced to go to foreign countries. Armenians had
_ to leave Turkeyin masses. Jews havebeen driven out of central European countries.
Sometimes want forces the underprivileged to seek work and foodin foreign coun-
| tries,as East Indians did in SouthAfrica and South America. Sometimes immigra-
| tion |is forbidden. or limited.There iis noeconomics3 of humanity. |Population of Hawaii
1830
1850
1870
ms lin
7 hinein
NN
Hawaiian
Part- Hawaiian
Chinese, Japanese, Korean Filipino White
Each symbol represents 25,000 population sog)Immigration in the United States is closely related to the entire economic situa-
tion, especially to the production of iron up to the World War.
United States. Annual Iron-Production and Immigration
1872 „ 1873 ©
1882
1886
1892 5
1895
1909
1918
192
1922
| m 1930
New
Immigralion
law
\ Ba
en |
Each symbel represents © Each symbol represents a an 5
25 million long tons of pig’iron produced 100,000 immigrants soi
In the last few decades emigration for political reasons from the Soviet Union, \
Turkey, Germany, and Italy was more pronounced than during earlier times. Now .
| hundreds of thousands of‘expatriates live: in foreign countries. 7 | EnOnly the Soviet Union has been free from depressions and shown only an
upward development in production, but it does not admit masses of immigrants.
Planning excludes the type of economic crisis so well known in other countries.
Fluctuations in production and consumption may also arise in the Soviet Union,
but only because of special changes in organization or technical equipment. Busi-
ness cycles, once more or less national, become more and more international. The
great world depression affected all countries except the Soviet Union:
Pig-Iron-Production |
United States | 5 Great Britain France Germany Soviet Union
gemenen Word mm
BEGBERGBSA UNZERNERE
EE Pe
BORE
1921 ‘WBSUGERUSE ERSRREE |
1922 Pe
1923 |
1924 HAUNSEBERE
EEE TEN
1925 BEBRENNENBE
EN GESTEL CAGE SANO
a1937
1936 Higemend
mend ee eee
oane Toe YIGURODITS aus
7
ae, mennen ennse
| Each unitrepresents 1million long ftons7 |
. "Fluctuations.depend n ot only upon business cycles but also upon other things.
u Forinstance, rearmament in one state may increase the production of raw materials
in another. Sweden illustrates very well towhat extent the situation in one country
ey depends upon activities in another. De | 2Exports of Iron Ore from Sweden
9 EEN
4 a
RE
_ Each unit represents1 million long tons
The influence of the World Waris“obvious: rapid pre-war development, inse-
curity at the outbreak of thewar in 1914, the lack of orders corrected by a surplus
of orders in 1915, a very stable exporttradeduring the rest of the war. (the most |
_ regular of all periods, though not the most prosperous), a slump after thewar,
a
rapid but restless development tall 1929, and, after a serious depression, a new turn
for the better, which seseems to be closely connected with the armament ‘Programs in
a other countries. cae | | | | |The present is a time of unrest and disturbance in production, of ups and downs
in prices and wages, in profits and investments. Increasing profit leads bankers and
manufacturers, farmers and explorers to make new investments; if the profit is
_ doubtful, investing ceases. Upon this question ofprofit everything depends: invest-
ment or non-investment, production of more or less goods, employment or unemploy-
ment, high or low purchasing power, foodor hunger, shelter or vagrancy, hope or
fear. The tendency to reduce production—and also thereby to reduce consumption
—as a measure to keep prices high 3is general:
World Cotfon- Production geh
United States Other c¢ountries.
1927/28
1929/30
1931/32 §
1933/34
1935/36
1937/38
Each symbol represents 2.5 million Boles |
Even the acreageof cotton-fields wasreduced iin1 the United States by govern-
mental intervention. me sen
Not only restrictionof production but also destruction plays its part: crops,
| mining, and oil- production are the subject of international agreements. Milk and
| grain have been destroyedin America, cocoa in Liberia, cattlein Denmark, vege-
_ tablesin the Netherlands, coffeeinBrazil. Destruction of machines, automobiles,
ae ships takes place because they 2nolonger pay a nd rnot because they are no longer fit
to be used.Market Regulation by Destruction, Brazil 1927-1937
33383
235 United States
VVY¥YV¥V
38383
Each symbol represents 10 million bags of coffee
full coloured: being produced and old stocks —
Brazil on ship: exported
with flame: destroyed
without ship: consumed ad locum, old stocks 0
outlined: imported, increase of stocks
OY id
The world production of coffeeisconcentrated chiefly in Latin America, espe-
cially in Brazil. Hence the conditions for planned destruction are those laid down
in Brazil. The choice within the present social order lies between economic depres-
sion and bankruptcy on the one hand and planned destruction, with a possible loss |
of world status on the other. Destructionis provided for by law. Itis not practised |
when war is imminent or when comprehensive planningis necessary to prepare for
war, as in Italy and Germany. In these countries planning, control of raw material
for import and export and for home use, goes handin hand with profits.
Evenin the Soviet Union, which has an economie system no longer depending En
on profit, a special kind of destruction may occur, such as the slaughtering of cattle
_in connexion with the collectivization of farms. But these are transition phenom-
ena and not something inherentin the system. However, some think thephenomena bol
are theconsequences of some types of dictatorship and that they entail a combina- |
tion of planning and liberty.of decision. Man todayis accustomed to destruction; |
_ but he knows that the possibilities of production and reconstruction are enormous. —
The rate at which ships w ere> built after the World War shows what canbe done: |Merchant Vessels Launched per Year
in United States inall other countries 5
1913/1914
1915/1916
1917/1918
m en EN |
1919/1920 Fz
1921/1922
1923/1924 N:
’ <
1925/1926
N
B
1927/1928
w
1929/1930
Fr
1931/1932
;
1933/1934 _
1935/1936
1937/1938
Each symbol represents 500,000 gross tons Vessels of 100 gross tons and over) ord
| During the World Warmany; ships -werelost, and comparatively few were
5 built. The activity of the merchant marine was much reduced. Increasing post-
war demands were fulfilled rapidly.Not only:were losses made good, but the world’s
merchant marine grew, adapted to expandingworld trade. Suddenly shipbuilding
stopped again—not because countries needed no more goods, but because the profits
of world trade decreased. If it were not necessary to have a certain reserve of ships Be
for wartime—to serve as troop transports or as. hospital ships, or, after modifica-
tion, even as cruisers— many more would probably havebeen scrapped during the
oe depression, to stem the risingg tide of Joss. oee |Cotton-production, coffee-production, and shipbuilding may flourish as before
if the market situation is changed and buyers are in a position to spend money.
Again, a new situation might arise, if the production basis has been changed. The
present ups and downs are terrifying to many people—not only those who are di-
rectly affected, but also others who depend upon certain branches of this trade for
profits. A nation which buys and sells in the international market is affected by all
the international accidents which may occur. Many American wheat-growers, for
instance, live by exporting their produce. This.is what happened to the wheat ex-
ports of the United States:
United States, Wheat Trade
au,
onnyal average
Imports
1902-1906
1907-1911
1912 -1916
1917 -1921
re
Ce RE
1922-1926
1927-1931
2
il,
lt
iad
A
ve .
Each symbol represents 10 mil ion bushels of wheat and flourcoe= . :=JE u
; (Bow r expressed in sorresponding quantity of grain)The world situation has fundamentally changed ; in the last decade. Europe ig
on her way towards self- sufficiency:
Wheat Trade
United States, Canada,
Other countries Argentina, Australia Europe
1909 -13
EE eR = ES
8 EE
if
a
LE
LLL LfTE
Cf LL om
SE eae
as
| LL
average
eNASae
=
Raseee
men aas
1928
EE umeet
=
7e ”
Au
“RE S|
1935
“RE EE | ug
ms Each symbol represents 200 million bushels Full without ship: produced and consumed ad locum
Zu full on black ship: exported ig]
outlined on white ship: imported ISOTYPE“A utarchy”—self-sufficiency—not only destroys international connexions, but in
industrial countries lowers the quality of products and the standard of living.
Free trade always inclines to support production of one kind of goods and spe-
cialization. The “banana states” of Central America are examples. Specialization
is responsible for differences in type and standard of living. Because of the trend
towards self-sufficiency, the international division of labour is reduced. The effect
is to make human life more uniform everywhere, despite isolation. The agrarian
countries are forced to build up a manufacturing industry of their own when they
find no buyers for their agricultural products. Lacking foreign credit, they can no
longer trade with foreign countries. This new industrialization, which especially pro-
motes the mechanization of agriculture, means an adaptation to the general level of
the more advanced countries, not only in the field of methods of production, but also
in the standard of living. Purely agrarian nations generally have a lower standard of
living because the desire for bread is not elastic, and the possibility of increasing the
production of food is limited. Manufactures have a much wider latitude; the use of
radio sets, of automobiles, of typewriters may develop enormously. En
The tendency towards increasing self-sufficiency parallels a decreasing world
trade. This may be illustrated by the case of Europe: |
Foreign Trade iin Europe
imports from zu DE exports to
extra-european countries _ trade within Europe extra - european « countries
1929
AAAAAA A
FYI"
imports from | 7 exports to |
exira - european countries trade within Europe _extra- european countries
1935
—
Each line represents 1000 million dollars of1929 ete Ä oel |This is part of the international change intrade and production andis closely
connected with preparations for war. | | |
All these ups and downs characterize the situation, but it cannot be said that
they characterize modernity. The number of people who want to bring about such
fluctuations if they are non-existent is very small. Nobody thinks of “imitating” busi-
ness fluctuations as plumbing and skyscrapers are imitated. It may happen that the
Russians imitate Western people by producing
‘ ‘period furniture,” Corinthian col-
umns and capitals, but it is difficult to imagine their deliberately causing economic
crises, periods of prosperity and depression. The people of our time try to overcome
these shortcomings of an economic system. One country imitates another’s way of re-
| sisting — planning and relief work, for example. — =
In countries where private enterprise is not restricted, gsovernments do not wish
to compete with industry. Their unemployed do not manufacture goods for general
consumption, but build dams, highways, stadiums, and recreation grounds. The
production of armaments is also regarded as belonging to the same category of non-
competitive activities. Arms can be produced iin vast quantities without weakening
the “armament market,” since stored armaments affect that market about like “con-
sumed” armaments.
In spite of the great influence of the armament industry, governments do
hesitate less to nationalize or control the production of munitions because it is not
very closely connected with market fluctuations. A great many books and articles
keep people informed about the importance of the armament industry and thein-
ternational linksin ie Ä
| In the same way, people arelearning more and more how the commercial power
ef trusts, cartels, and combines on the one handis connected with the preparation
8 for war on the other,since practically all production and tradeare bound up with
war. Profits and prices are connected with pain and death. Not a few people have
_ been made conscious of the intense activities and complicated intrigues behind the
scenes by novels and articles iin periodicals dealing with such subjects.
Modern men learn to speak of nameless “money-powers” behind war-power.
Oncea specialty of radicals and a few university scholars, the theory of the commer-
| cial roots of war, the closeconnexion between war, commerce, and piracy, spreads
throughout the world, andnobody knows cxactly whether he is a “follower” of the
oe theory or not. It is inthe air. |
Investments in foreignterritoriesimprovehe commercial and financial and -
E sometimes also the political positionof iinvestors, but in a great many cases they help :
a a Potentialenemy.
0. When the press tells of thePan-American roadand transport system, of motor
‘highways thatjoinboth the Americasfrom north to south, or of Imperial airways or
Re other great international routes, it not only stresses
s the> problems of travel, problemsof international contacts, but also the war interests which may be behind all. |
In articles and books writers of different political and scientific faiths discuss
possible combinations of war alliances, giving each an impressive name which may
become the slogan of a future war. People are “Against Fascism,” “Against the Com-
intern,” “Against Aggressors,” “For Democracy,” “For Peace,” “For Pacts,” “For the
League of Nations.” Or they have the Pan-Asiatic idea, or the Pan-European, the
Pan-German, the Pan-Turanian (a formula used during the World War to join the
Magyars, Bulgars, and Turks as allies), the Pan-Slavic (a formula often heard be-
fore the World War), the Pan-American idea of the Monroe Doctrine. All these
“pan” slogans are the daily bread of men. How quickly slogans and terms may die
or change, directing the public “spontaneous enthusiasm” in the opposite direction,
was to be seen at the beginning of the World War. As long
as the Central Powers
hoped to have Japan as their ally, they sometimes called the Japanese “the Prus-
sians of the Far East.” Later, when it became known that Japan was with the
Allies, they called them “those yellow apes.” One of the slogans which are now in
the foreground: “Democracy fights Fascism,” means Great Britain, France, the
United States, and the Soviet Union are allied. If the Soviet Unionis excluded, the
“Western Democracies” remain. One can say the “Rome Pact” is revived, if Great
Britain, France, Italy, and Germany co-operate, as by the Munich agreement forin-
stance. The “French Pacts” which were nearly nullified on this occasion may be
_ resurrectedin a relatively short time. The connexions between Poland and the So-
viet Union show how quickly international combinations can change. Some even see _
a possible rivalry between the United States and Great Britain and discuss the rivalry |
between Standard Oil and Royal Dutch-Shell. No alliance is impossible. History
shows all kinds of alliances: a Cardinal as a French Prime Minister subsidizing the
leader of the Protestants during the Thirty Years’ War; the Christian B of >
France as the ally of the Turks against theChristian Hapsburgs. _ |
If the whole political situation tends towards war, governments regroup them-
selves. War becomes imminent if the strength of both sides does not vary greatly.
It may be assumed that countries of equal population have equal armies, that the
governments have at their disposal the raw materials not only of their own terri- —
tories but also of their dependencies and of countries with which they are closely u
connected, such as Great Britain and Canada. It is probable thatin a future World —
War there will be fewer neutrals thanin the last. In any case, it must be assumed —
that nearly all the world’ s resources of raw material will be at the disposal of the oS
fighting cotmtries. Asa preliminary assumption, we maydivide the resourcesof =
“other countries” into two. | 5 BEE :
Selecting certain raw materials which are of importance. for armament. and.
food, and taking as a basis the maximum of production in a country since 1929, we |
_ find the distribution oF raw materials to beapproximately the following for differ-
; ent alliances: | | | DEESilhouettes of War Economy
Great Britain, France, Spain, Germany,
Poland, Rumania, Hungary, United States, Soviet Union italy,
Yugoslavia, Turkey, Iraq, Iran . and other countries Japan
Coal
Petroleum
Iron
(content of ores
Copper
(content of ores)
Cotton and wool
Grain and rice
United States, Great Britain, France, Soviet Union, Germany,
Italy, Spain, Rumania, Hungary, 0... 0.0. Japan, Poland
Yugoslavia, Turkey, Iraq, lran Other countries
. . Coal |
Petroleum
Iron
(content of ores
Copper >
{content of ores)
Cotton and wool
Grain and rice:Silhouettes of War Economy
Great Britain, France, Spain, Germany,
Poland, Rumania, Hungary, United States Soviet Union Italy,
Yugoslavia, Turkey, Iraq, Iran and other countries Japan
355538858
Petroleum
ofen AAA f
EBB
otton and wool ee
we a
United States, Great Britain, France, Soviet Union, Germany,
Italy, Spain, Rumania, Hungary, Japan, Poland
Yugoslavia, Turkey, Iraq, Iran Other countries
k |
Coal
nn = = = = 8 = AE |
(content of ores)
Iron
Fe | Fe | Fe | Fe | Fe | Fe | Fe re Fe | Fe
(NN ZEN NN EN LA ERN VASE
Copper
ae ae VEEN VEEN ees CNC NN ER
en ; a a Eu a i ii ti ae
Each symbol represents 10 % of world production
84ilhouettes of War Economy
United States, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain, |
France, Soviet Union Poland, Rumania, Hungary,
Other countries Yugoslavia, Turkey, Iraq, Iran
Coal |
Petroleum |
content of ores |
Copper |
content of ores |
Cotton and wool |
Grain and rice |
United States, France, a ne Great Britain, Germany,
_ Soviet Union, Turkey, Iraq, Iran Italy, Japan, Spain, Poland,
ee Other countries Rumania, Hungary, Yugoslavia =
Petroleum | |
Iron |
content of ores)
Copper
(content of ores)
‘Cotton and wool
Grain and rice Ee
u
nThese schemes show only how the question of war can be discussed in concrete
cases. Readers should not object that alliances are depicted which seem queer to
them; a scheme is not a fact, and necessity makes strange bedfellows.
The study of such comprehensive groupings leads nearer to reality than the
usual study of the “Big Seven” only. Certain alliances are interested in occupying
neutral regions which provide certain raw materials. These are often more important
than the raw materials and substitutes produced within the frontiers of the allies.
Rubber and petroleum are among materials for which substitutes can be found only
with difficulty. | |
To discuss the economics ofwar is not so unusual today as it was hefore the
World War. Special economic measures necessary before and during a war are being
foreseen and even taken. It is realized everywhere that during a war an expansion of
planningis necessary. | |
Real planningis becoming universal— planning as a war measure, planning as
an anti-depression medicine, and planning as the basis of a new social order. It may
be said that planning is “fashionable,” and, because it is widely imitated, also “mod-
ern,” in spite of all theoretical criticism against a planned economy. In connexion
with government relief work, plans have been much discussed and many suggested
_by labour parties. The chief aim nowadays is to fight world-wide unemployment, one
of the most depressing conditions of our time. Unemployment insurance is a plaster
to heal the wounds inflicted by the economic order. The elimination of unemploy-
ment is one of the striking features of the planned economy in the Soviet Union.
This experience, but also special experience in other countries, in both democratic
and authoritarian states, overcomes the objection that planning iis too difficult and
| hence impossible. | | |
New questions arise which have not yet been answered by historical experience.
Can economic planning be combined withincreasing civil liberty? What combina-
tions of comprehensive social organization and free personal behaviour are pos-
sible? Will oppression be a transitory phenomenon or will it always be connected
| with planning, as a new social attitude? |
Planningis not new. Only its widening scope and ourbecoming conscious of it
are new. To a certain extent every primitive community, every agrarian community,
every household, is based on planning. The primitives had no weapons to fight nat-
ural catastrophes; modernmen have technical equipment to make life secure and
bo provide food and shelter, health and recreation for all. Every military organizer
in history was a planner. Even today war economy in a great many countries is
planned to a greater extent than peace economy. In the United States the seasonal
u fluctuations of coal- production accompanied by unemployment are permanent phe-
nomena,in periods of prosperity and depression as well as in so-called normal years.
ae Onlyduring the World Warswas8 the seasonal fluctuation reduced to a minimum:
oe 86 oeIn War Seasonal Fluctuations Disappear
Quarterly Coal-Production in the United States
1914 1st EIEIENER
2nd RIES
1917
War
1922
1926
1932
1936
Each symbol represents 10 million short tons of coal, produced quarterly ee sonnel |
Planning during war-time is so traditional that it‚need not be feared that »man-
kind will require centuries of experience before a plannedeconomy can be built up.
The step from planned war economy to a planned peace economy has been taken |
with some degree of success by the Soviet Union. At present preparation for war
often reduces unemployment and stimulates production. If a planned economy were |
a universal institution, the making of a good livelihood might then satisly allimpor-
tant human needs, and war would become but a destroyer. | | 7
Some people doubt that war will everdisappear; they speak of the war“in-
stinct.” Some scientists, on the other hand, say that such an “instinct”does not
exist. One historical fact serves to supportsuch :a thesis: in a1 region in which a greatnumber of wars occurred during two hundred years, later there was hardly a war
during another period of two hundred years:
lars of Ancient Rome and Greece 400 B.C. to 200 B.C.
}
Near East
MN Greece
Each line represents 5 war years red:Roman wars black: Grecian wars before Philip and Alexander
blue: later wars in the region of Alexander's Empire
_ Wars of the Roman Empire 30 B.C. to 170 A.D.
7 | | = Dacia
Pc
Fi *
f
ey
aS
Parthia
\ Each line represents 5 war years
8Another chart might be added to demonstrate that in later centuries war was
again frequent. The point is that the war situation may change rapidly. Though the
fathers are accustomed to fighting, the sons may live in peace. Men are adapted to
livingin peace. War arises from certain circumstances. When they change, the de-
sire or need to fight vanishes. |
The idea that all human beings could livein peace within a comprehensive social
framework spreads throughout the worldin a period whichis full of preparation for
war and of internal disturbance. It is a characteristic of modern men and of the world
situation that wars and economic depressions are no longer regarded as a matter of
course, in spite of all the desire to use war as an instrument of profit, political power,
or social change. Anincreasing opposition to war, a desire for peace and co-opera-
tion, characterizes the present social environment. | |
Like the “instinct” to fight, the “instinct” that opposes war is non-existent.
People quickly learn different kinds of cruelty in peace-time. Nowadays it is the
environment, the entanglement of various interests, that leads to war, and not a
scarcity of food. There is no scarcity of food on the earth. Many more men might
live on the products of the soil. There are also more efficient means to regulate the |
distribution of goods.
How to engineer a real world community is a problem which stimulates and
irritates an increasing number of people. The pacifists are not the only ones who
think that wars and internal disturbances constitute a burden like the Black Death.
Many advocate only peace, others a new order as the basis of peace. One group
thinks it is possible to fight these disasters only by means of weapons; another, that —
a kind of non-resistance, a| general repudiation of all warlike behaviour should result
in peace. So eo | 5
Militant Socialists ‘combat pacifism for its own sake without glorifying war
itself, while a great many militant nationalists glorify war and preach “heroismin-
stead of pacifism.” International tension is forcing an increasing number of govern-
ments to prepare for war. Even in states where opposition to the government is _
allowed, a great many peoplewho object to war and fear every increase of milita-
rization as a first step towards an authoritarian state nevertheless believein military
preparedness, because they fear—justifiably or unjustifiably—the victory of an
authoritarian enemy and theexpansion of totalitarianism by means offoreign armies Le
more than the merely possible authoritarian effects of militarization.
The world situation is closely connected. with the internal political and social oe
situation of each country.Topromotepacifism intensely iis regarded more and more
as a heresy not onlyinfundamentally militaristic states but alsoin the others as well.
Itis becoming verydifficult to determine what the behaviour of the masses would
be if the situation could bechanged. Perhaps a certain flexibility is the result. A
change inthe social order which iis not tooviolent and which iis not connected with =a change in men’s character might lead to a most cruel period of war; another not
too violent might lead to permanent peace. We may imagine human conflicts re-
maining as undirected as the particles in an unmagnetized bit of iron, or oriented
by a magnetizing “war-machine.” |
This leads to the conclusion that international tension is based not on a real
scarcity but on the structure of the human order of living. The conception of national
planning is gaining ground in a world community which can hardly be called well
organized. The factor “planning” is combined with changing political and social
factors. The old order is entering into competition with planning, and the planning
promoted by defence economy competes with non-planning and the kind of plan-
ning promoted by labour. Half planning promoted by ruling groups and their fol-
lowers competes with complete planning; within a movement for total planned
economy different groups may oppose one another. This world situation helps to
form the social environment in which modern men grow up.
No text on this page.
7
t
”
\
5 " na
\ fon NiHow different are the “silhouettes” of various nations! For good or evil, rich |
and poor states form the international background with its periods of prosperity and
depression, with its production and destruction, with its war and peace. These rough
contrasts do not present an adequate* ‘profile of happiness” within a particular nation.
_ Conflicts between rich and poor create the social environment in which modern
man grew up. They are sufficiently characterized by a “relief” showing different
“strata” ofincomes:
Profile of Persdnal Incomes in Great Britain, 1934 — | | | | | average in
_. £ 2500
per annum
5 u a |
A nn Er
‚Each symbol 2°),
represen ts
ofincome-receivers So ME ee, | El Oe ed
_ This“‘profile of“happiness” shows enormous; mountainsand wideplains. No.one
now pleads that poverty is anecessaryor worthy institution. A nation without pau-
pers has no desire to create theta. 1There aremany causes of pauperism, Tt is in
part a residue of the slavery of old: Be oe eee ee | ONE| | ;
of Family Income in Columbia, South Carolina, 1933 income classes
$ 5000 and over
t $ 3000 - 4999
| A! $ 2000-2999
“fl . ~ $1500-1999
$ 1000-1499
. . $ 500-999
$1- 499
nbol represents 29/0 of families _ white: whites black: Negroes — | En orn lb
Living-conditions in this “lowland” enable us to judge those in “non-modern”
parts of the world. A rich country like England with a relatively high average
standard of living has many paupers in dreadful slums despite the high average
income. The present housing movement started by clearing away slums, but not by
a clearing away pauperism as a whole. The distribution of large apartments, villas,
beach houses on the one hand, of slums—“railroad flats” and crowded tenement
houses in cities, and mud and log huts in the country—on the other, tells much about ©
the distribution of human happiness. An
iincreasing number of people realize that
political problems of the present which are a characteristic of the social environment.
_ have no connexion with unknown or cosmic influences such as sun spots or with par-
ticular customs and opinions,but that they are a consequence of a social order which _
in spite of adequate natural resources does not allow full use of the real productive
capacity and the complete elimination of pauperism. _ | On
0... Gertain elements within the social pyramid seem to be more movable than others.
“ Rich people can change their place of living easily; they can go where they like the
a ‚elimate; thesurroundings, the social conditions, the low taxes.Those who travel firstProfile of Family Income in Columbia, South Carolina, 1933
income classes
$ 5000 and over
0
- 4999
$ 300
0
- 2999
$ 200
$ 1500 -1999
$ 1000 - 1499
$ 500-999
$1-499
Each symbol represents 2°/, of families white: whites black: Negroes nlclass find accommodations to their liking everywhere. First-class hotels and the villas
of the Western rich are similar all the
over world. As money can be invested every-
where, rich people are affected by distant events. Sometimes they even try to control
the events by direct intervention or by appealing to their governments.
Another group which travels muchis made up of the workersin manufacturing
industries. Immigrants into the United States belong largely to this group of skilled
or unskilled industrial werkers, besides immigrants whe are agricultural and do-
mestic workers:
United States, Immigrants by Occupation
1910-1914
Professional, .
commercial, ete. JEE
Skilled - No occupation
1920-1924
Unskilled a
. Professional,
; „Sommerdal, ete. GER OO RO eae
| 7 | Skilled No occupation
7 oFEach smbe represent 250,000 immigrants | oe orci
Agricultural workers constitute. another large group of immigrants—sons of =
peasant families with many children,seeking new sources of livelihood. And this
despite the stability of the peasant group, which in many countries still is more
stationary than are the city dwellers of today. The other groups, suchas teachers,
lawyers, physicians, belonging to the middle class, travel less and are more bound to
_ their country. Schooldiplomas ;and universitydegrees of one country areoften not
recognized in another. This handicapsmigration. Men who have such certificates
are interestedin removing competitors,and not a few of them intend to develop.
stronger national ideasthan other groups. Asa rule it is this middle class that culti- |
vates a taste for national folk-lore, old costumes, dances, games, and customs. This EN
tendency ;is common to Western nations—theinternationalism of nationalism.| There is another class which does not exist as a large group in all countries, but
where it does exist is of a special type. This is the “fifth estate,” the very poor, the
hoboes, professional tramps, and gypsies, for whom thereis no placein society. They
must adapt themselves to the special irregularities iin their social environment and
make the most of the particular liberties which are left. Hence their character varies
from place to place. | Ä | |
Social and hence living conditions vary widely iin the United States, India, China,
Great Britain, Japan, and the Soviet Union. Those who grow up in this environment
must have very thick skins to bear a social situation in which the well-to-do live be-
side very poor people. Human characteris not essentially altered by this juxtaposi-
tion; nor is life altogether unhappy. Though profits and also unemployment are
eliminatedin the Soviet Union by a new type of economie structure, there persist a
middle-class level and a very low level. It follows that modernity iis not over-sensi-
tive about such distinctions—in the beginning.
Jtis difficult to study the budget of the poor. On the other hand a glance is
| enough to appraise human shelter. |
Two Types of Tenements
oe Old DumbbellTypcovering 87%of the total area |It is obvious that living-conditions are not without their influence on health.
Disease is commoner among the poor than the prosperous. Abnormalities of body
and mind occur more frequentlyin a poor environment. Badly fed bodies have less
resistance, are feebler and smaller. Crude facts show this:
Living-“Conditions and Mortality from Tuberculosis i n Brooklyn
1929-1932
| Average monthly rrent
Dn En En En
Flatbush
Bedford
Red Hook -Gowanus,
Each cross represents 1 death per 10,000 population per annum | | | seri
In some countries
the well-to-do are men with private income or aristocrats by
birth, or both; in others they are, for example, members of a military or civil bureauc: 2
racy. | | | ed
_ The ‘ruling § groups are connected. inı different ways. In industrialized coun
tries men pass from official to commercial positions and vice versa. A high offcialin
the foreign office mayresign to become director of an industrial company or a bank.
Bankers, | promoters, entrepreneurs, contractors, and merchants are appointed finan-
cial and commercialadvisers of governments andeven government representatives
abroad. They maybe sent to organize protectorates in foreign territories
or to actLiving-Conditions and Mortality from Tuberculosis in Brooklyn
Average monthly rent
Flatbush ARE $ 60
pug
Bedford See $ 50
tiiii
Each cross represents 1 death per 10,000 population per annum song}Living-Conditions and Mortality from Tuberculosis in Brooklyn
Average monthly rent
ITT
11111
Red Hook -Gowanus sw $ 30
IIIIIIIII1
Each cross represents | death per 10,000 population per annum soneas financial or military advisers to. foreign states or native kings. A network of such
appointments and their consequences covers the world. The friend of yesterday may
become the spy of tomorrow; a general who advises a foreign government may the
next moment be regarded as a traitor. All these actions and reactions depend upon
decisions of ruling groups and cannot be regarded as following any scientific concept.
Yet they play a significant part in the social environment. Conflicts between com-
peting ruling groups and between the rich and the poor are important.
In the past, costume and dress indicated social standing and profession. In the
Middle Ages Christians and Jews were distinguishablein the streets. In the Western
countries, especiallyin countries like the United States or France, conformity to a
single type of clothing may be a characteristic feature of modernization. Neverthe-
less even in these countries the well-to-do are separated from the poor not only by
their better living-conditions but also by special customs, fashions, and whims intro-
duced as barriers. Those excluded try to imitate people with an “air of good breed-
ing.” |
In Continental Europe it was always possible to tell an artisan from a white-
collar man, even when they were on holiday. In this region today party uniforms
are of great importance. The militarization of the world stresses the difference be-
| tween the military and the civilian populationin most countries.
Differences between various groups of the population are maintained in many
ways. In most countries, including the Soviet Union, different classes of railroad
__eompartments or of accommodations on ships are found. These differentiations are
mot based on personal qualities; a poor man has the right to buy a ticket for a Pull-
man car.But other. differentiations discriminate between persons. There are differ-
ent compartments for colouredandwhite people on the trains in Indo-China andin
the South of the United States; separate benches are reserved for Jews and non-
Jews in public parks ofGermany, where, as in other central European countries,
. new diseriminating laws have been issued. That type of discrimination which is in-
dependent of one’s financialstanding does not seem to be a component of moder-
| nity, and iis not deeply rooted ;in1 the countries into which it has been introduced re-
| A greater facility in„changingfrom onesocial group to another does, however,
characterize modernity. Butit is difficult completely to eliminate the many dif-
5 \ 5 ferentiations between classes imposed by upbringing, education, and environment.
Many people, therefore, remain in the socialgroup in which they were born, and
follow an occupation similar to that of theirparents. Thus they are bound to a spe-
cial type of life: to certaindangersconnected with their occupation, to the preva-
lence ofdisease iin their environment, to theway of living and mode of recreation of
‘ theirassociates. Most marriagesarebetween persons, of the same social standing,
. __ands so are> mostfriendships. ed re CtThe present social environment is charged with tendencies to change the condi-
tions of living. Some of these threaten the social order itself. Scientific hypotheses
that purport to indicate the transformation of social orders can be made and the main
forces in the field sought, but how can the relation between conscious action and the |
level of human happiness be visualized? Facts are the resultants of various forces.
There is no doubt, for instance, that strikes express one type of dissatisfaction, but —
it cannot be said that an increasing number of strikes necessarily indicates an in-
creasing dissatisfaction among workers.
in United States
Steel-Production Strikes in United States
4
1927
aay amp
1928
1929
_
1933 ar
1934
ol repre sents 5 milli onlo ngto ns ____ ____ edm
ymbolrepresenis _
____E_Eachse
E
EachEsymb
E E E E B E ra
g
gStrikes are called generally when the chance of success is good—that is, in
periods of incipient prosperity. Workers will also seize opportunities to entrench
themselves when their security is threatened. Despite the restlessness that followed
the collapse of 1929 they do not usually strike during economic depressions. In
totalitarian countries, where strikes are forbidden, it is difficult to detect evidences of
proletarian discontent though it may be seething below the surface.
The vote cast for policies and candidates for office, articlesin newspapers, and
similar forms of expression give an unsatisfactory picture of attitudes in a certain
environment. In countries where there is no freedom of speech and of the press,
“public opinion” cannot be deduced from newspaper articles; even in countries in
which newspapers are free to print what they like, there iis no close correlation be- | |
tween articles and public opinion. | u |
Public Opinion
a Democratic Republican |
Newspaper circulation 1936 |
_ Election Nov. 4, 1936
BEOOOOLOOO
| Each symbol represents 10 el of ereultionlr votesin1 the Feen largest cities of the United States | cornell 5
| The present age has createdcertain institutions which make it possible for dis-
satisfaction to be expressed freely. The election of representatives to a parliament,
u the formation of parties,and political activity, which have been part of the govern-
tas, mental system of some states in thelast few centuries,depend upon freedom of op-
posing forces. Somegroups hope that by changing thebalance of these forces the © oy
whole social order may slowly be changed, and some think that poverty and inse- 5
2 curity may be finally eliminated by such means. Othergroups advocate a one-party
system, either because they fear that certain changes to which they object may other-
__ wise be made or because they think that important reforms which they desire can-
not be effected iin the face of opposition. — ge
10Political Organization
absolutism
1792
1830
1849
1852
1914
1918
1939
more-than-one-party system _ one-party system
Each symbol represents
_109/o of the population of America, Europe, and the Soviet Union
Blue: people living under a“profit” system
without ballot paper: no suffrage
with white ballot paper: non- authoritarian states
| with blue ballot paper: authoritarian states
Red: people living under a“non-profit’ system (the.Soviett Union)
After 1792 absolutism, with its fendal elements, vanished and constitutionalism -
spread. The “political conflagration” ofthe French Revolution has not been re-
__peatedin all countries. In some, relatively minor disturbances ended by changing the |
101 |social and political order. In many, the ruling groups, while adopting some elements
of constitutionalism, tried to preserve some of their power within the new order.
Families of feudal origin, for instance, tried to become owners of factories and to se-
cure for their offspring good government positions or commissions in the armies and
navies of newly industrialized and commercialized states. Each world-wide social
transformation moves in a complicated path. The industrialized Britons, for in-
stance, supported the forces of tradition in Europe by supporting the alliance against
Napoleonic France, which adopted British policies and thus came into competition
with Great Britain. It would not have been difficult for Britons to have allied them.
selves with Napoleon under some such formula as “against the reactionary states,”
after having approved the French Revolution. |
Itis difficult to predict how changesin society will come about, if imitations of
other countries’ institutions and possible alliances are bornein mind. The social en-
vironment may be characterized by three qualities:
Chessboard of Social Qualities
More-than- | International
one-party system Profit system Labour Contacts
Great Britain yes | yes — | yes
“Italy
Germany
| Soviet Union
u ‘Though states may be bound bytra-
Be“dition, it may also happen that, as the
result of a wave of planning, new politi-
ea
l struct
ures arise
out of the old. Thus
the ruling classes of an authoritarian
u structure may resort to planning to con-
000 solidate their privileges. Or a multi-
party system may combine planning with
the preservation of privileges. Or privi-
un leges may be abolished and planning
_ attuned to a multi-party system. At
presentan economy of national defence
compels governments to prepare for the “
: _ expectednext world war.In view of this the alliances of the near or more distant future cannot be pre-
dicted. Co-operation between France and the Soviet Union might be based on the
anti-Fascism of the People’s Front, but that could scarcely be the basis for co-opera-
tion between Great Britain, France, Italy, and the Soviet Union. If Germany wished
to join the Soviet Union against a common enemy, the Comintern would have to be
at least tacitly accepted or condoned.
All such alliances influence the transformation of the economic order and the
total social environment. This influence is perhaps relatively weak, and the his-
torical trend of the social environment could be described without mentioning
all the daily fluctuations in the relations between governments. Instead, the trend
might be inferred from the signs of incipient international co-operation and unifica-
tion. a
Itis increasingly recognized that the abolition of poverty, unemployment, war,
and racial discrimination, all more orless interdependent, is closely connected
with the agencies that are modifying the present social order. But other organized
efforts may profoundly affect life without seriously changing the social order, as,
for example, the fight against catastrophes such as floods and drought, which is simi-
lar to the fight against epidemics, and the restoration of the damage « done by tornadoes
and earthquakes. a |
These well-planned activities present many features of modernity. Moreover
they have a long tradition behind them. The civilizationin the valleys of the Eu-
phrates and the Tigris, the Egyptian and the Chinese civilizationswere all based on
agricultural co-operation, which was an essential part of the social order. |
Irrigation is important todayin certain countries—for instance, in Egypt,
China, India, Italy, Spain, Mexico, and ina parts of the United States andthe Soviet —
Union. ee gd u nn
Fields are often irrigated by s states which |are building dams and dikes, as in
the Netherlands, where new land has been made by holding back the sea. The popu-
lation of the temperate zones, where there iis sufficient rain, has learned relatively
late to organize irrigation and to control riversco-operatively. Oriental nations seem
to have been the teachers of Western peoples notonly ijn irrigation and flood-control,
but alsoin intensive agricultureas a whole. | |
Technical evolution has reached such a high level that all flood catastrophes \
_can be fought successfully by known technical methods. In the United States, for : | |
instance, gigantic dams are built, whichnotonly tend to control floods but assure a
water-supply for various purposes,such :asthe irrigation of land and the generation 7
of electric energy. | orn En | ee
Since comprehensive Aood-control leads t o) governmentcontrol of energy through =
- reforestation, the prevention of erosion,and other important conservation meas- _
ures, there iismuch discussion ofpossible social changes that such federal interven- zetion might bring about. Some fear a restriction of trade and profits, whether through
the elimination of competitors by ruling groups, whoin this way might secure large
permanent incomes for their families, or through Fascism or Socialism spread by
governmental institutions among the masses by improving their living-conditions.
Some hold that centralization might result in suppression of freedom of the press and
of speech; others that technical control is possible with a large amount of personal
freedom: in other words, control of production without control of thinking.
It may be seen at a glance that the control of the basin of the Mississippi River
alone needs the co-operation of over twenty states. The area of this basin is over a
third that of the United States: |
The Basin of the Mississippi and Its Tributaries
_Thisis not the place to analyse the reason why people did not build their shelters
far from river banks at may be flooded. Problems | of trade and transportation in- —
uenced their decision. Great floods area characteristic of the social environment ofmany countries—for instance, of China and the United States. In certain states, such
as Louisiana, about fifteen per cent of the population was afflicted by the great flood
of 1927:
The Flooded Area near the Estuary of the Mi
and Its Population
Arkansas
Mississippi |
Louisiana
Each blue square represents 2,500,000 acres inundated in 1927 | | |
nts of states _
100,000 population
Each man symbol represe 2. OO Be
_on blue: population of flooded area _ . | | conn
In China tremendous devastation 3iséatuaed by floods, and the country lacks the 7
well-organized relief whichis a characteristic of the United States. ed
The main efforts to control floods are inseparable from efforts to organize irri.
gation. The civilization of the present time does not so much depend upon irrigation ae
105 |The Flooded Area near the Estuary of the Mississippi
and Its Population
Arkansas
= ississippi
Louisiana
Each blue square represents 2,500,000 acres inundated in 1927
Each man symbol represents 100,000 population of states
on blue: population of flooded area coun)as, for example ‚ ancient Egypt d i igat Jon is ESSEN tial in E gypt.
In our times, too, irriga
% *
cd
In Egypt irrigation 1s more W idespread than in Mex ico, an d in Mexico more than in
the United S tates “
[2
Area Irrigated
United States Brees
Bees2BE
SERRE
EEE
B IE.
See
EEE
EEE
ae
=SE
EIER
EEE E
oe=EEE EEE EEE EEE
BEE
LE)
EL
EEE
FE
EE
ee
SEE
33%
ZT
EL
in
5a
Osat
REE
") >
"
5 in
i
=Ö x 4 SER 5 = Pe poe E E
pit
BEEK
FR =
ce RE
er
ER
EEE
ET
Eereat
ees
© 235
EEE
SEIFERT
Er
Nd
GE
>
EEE
|
a
RPO PEER ETE
Sere Se
RES
En
Rn
EEE
NE
EEE
PR au
oe
FRE
BES
ze Ses
EEE
Een
RTCA,
Egypt
China
irrigated horti- other cultivated area
Each square represents 10°/, of cultivated area culture
Irrigation seems to be more important at present because the exhaust ion 0 f the
soil, as the result of unscientific cultivation, forces men on the one hand to combat
*
erosion and expand irriga t ion , and on the other to produce more, as is necessary, for
*
*
ims t ance, In Mex
* * i
‘
Ei
Flood-control and extension of irrigation lead to certa in types of continual co-
operation. Earthquakes and tornadoes come and go, and cannot be predicted. Sci-
entists know only that certa in regions are more expose dto them than others. Earth-
* a
oes cannot be regulated On the other hand shelters and other
ildings wh ICh have been wrecked by them can be rebuilt.ilt Su
S ch organized recon-
struct ion is s imilar
to the reconstruction that followed the World War in France and
‚Belgium. Thesuccess of these enterprises is based on the fact that
in the social order
of today a great many reserves can be drawn upon wh ich exist Im spi te of what we
* *
ic dep ression, ” for prosper ity may be regarded as a
‘
aMaximum Stocks since 1930
Compared with Annual Production “lesser depression” since productive ca-
pacity is always higher than actual pro:
duction.
Huge world stocks of food and raw
materials have been accumulated by so-
ciety today. They will help to rebuild a
world which may suffer the destruction
wrought by war or an earthquake. But in
the world of the future, reconstruction
after disaster would not bring about a
quasi-prosperity, as it does now, since re-
serves for emergencies will be more care-
fully planned. |
Co-operation on a large scale marks
: social environment today. Men learn the
necessity for co-operation and planning
in different fields of social life. Itis ap-
_ parent on every hand that famine and
Cotton 1932/33 T TE u; poverty cannot be attributed to lack of
resources. Highly efficient means of com- —
‘munication, some developed during the
Esonceseparated countries. —
World War, have overcome barriers that
Fairly rapid communicationwas al- |
wayspossible. In the ancient Roman Re-
public only citizens actually in Rome |
\ could influence politics by electing rep-
99000006 | resentatives. Nobody ever thought of
Bach sending to Rome representatives elected _
En 2 byRomansin Alexandria or Massilia. In
u 5theMiddle Ages popes were elected by
_the people of Rome and then by car-
_ dinals who travelled to Rome to cast their
votes. Even today if a cardinalis llor
SE"prevented by war or otherwise fromgo-
= to Rome to vote, he may notsenda
fy : ma Nor may a member of Parlia-
—
ment vote by proxy if he is ill, and
Each symbol represents 10 % ofannual pede=onun
Ds through il ness might mean ed
this though the absence of powerful — |
black symbol in rectangles: stil in storkfrom.| previous years 7se
| white symbols: produced annually |the defeat of important measures. Television, coupled with the radio or wire
telephone, makes it possible to “attend” a parliamentary meeting by electricity and
thus to overcome the handicap of distance or physical disability. It is possible to
imagine a parliamentary debate carried on by widely separated representatives who
may even make themselves so objectionable by shouts and gestures that the chairman
is obliged to switch them off. Theincrease in theuse of the telephone, radio, the
automobile, and other means of communication can prepare the way for a virtually
international co-operation of humanity.
Radio, Telephone, Automobiles
United States and Canada ro; = Soviet Union
: BBEE
J
a
Far East
Je
__ Each symbol represents1 million radios, telephones, automobiles. poe ; 7 es | sold
“Curiously enough, the technologicalimprovement of communication is at pres-
5 ent attended by a restriction of freedom ofspeech iin some countries. Possibly the
restriction may ultimately be removed so thatradio broadcasting and other means
ofmass appeal and rapid communication will be permitted to perform their proper |
afunction of making ınations better acquainted with ¢oneanother.
logOnly a part of the world is involved in this process of technological change, and |
this part alone may be regarded as the place of origin of modern mechanized civili-
zation. It may be assumed that all land fifty miles to the right and left of a railroad
has the potentiality of mechanized modernity. | |
Communities thus favourably located are able to fight flood, famine, and other |
disasters. Foodstuffs are stocked not for the happiness of men, but for profit. Nv-
ertheless they make it possible to cope with famine if it occurs. |
The expanding of the international railroad system is closely connected with the 5
expanding of the basis of modern life, as one might see from the modern history of |
both the Americas: |
Territory within 50 Miles of a Railroad a
1863 1913 B |
| nn | | . ___4SOTYPE
Scientists learn more and more how to change the surface of the earth, how to
create new seas in central Africa or to overcome the disadvantages of an unfavour-able climate. Even Iceland’s geysers supply warm water to heat houses. But men
have not learned to predict or stop earthquakes or to prevent volcanoes from erupt-
ing. Such possibilities of science are not so important at the moment as abolishing
the possibility of war, unemployment, and oppression, which are the great blots on
our time and, together with the “profit system,” the main characteristics of the pres-
ent social environment. |
No text on this page.
No text on this page.
What do all these trends towards modernity mean in man’s daily life? What
changes have taken place in each individual life? How can the social facts be retold
in terms of individual experience? _ |
One actual change in personal lifeis traceable to the fact that the birth-rate is
decreasing. Modern children grow up in relatively small families. The “only child,”
an exception in the past, is becoming more and more the rule. When there are more
childrenin a family, often several years lie between their births. If a boy has a sister
whois hisjunior by six years, each grows up practically as an “only child,” with all
the peculiarities that characterize this situation. In an old- fashioned family there
were many brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts, cousins, and other relatives; today
many children have no uncles.
Children with aunts and uncles The undeless child
A child knows that it has parents and that nearly all of the other people of its5
acquaintance are not relatives. The “only child” is an urgent modern social prob-
lem, which, as a special subject of research, is being discussed by psychologists,
pedagogues and physicians. A child needsnotonly playmates but also close relatives.
13Children of 3 to 5 Years of Age The “only child” does not easily learn
in the> Netherlands within the family how to adapt itself to its
environment. Hence kindergartens are
necessary not only for modern pedagogy
in general, but also for mental hygiene. ©
Large families in the past constituted col-
in Kindergartens not in Kindergartens lective educational groups. Today a de-
1860 crease in the birth-rate forces parents to
support all kinds of children’s communi-
ties. An increase in the number of kin-
dergartens, playgrounds, and other insti-
tutions intended for children parallels
the decrease in the number of children in
families. Education in children’s com-
munities is the first step in adapting the
human being to social life. |
This collectivization of the life of
children is connected not only with the
trend in the birth-rate but also with other
_ Each symbol represents 50,000 children changes. More mothers than before work
in factories and offices and are glad to
have their children kept off the street
and away from its dangers. Formerly
women worked more at home. The peas-
_ant’s wife and daughters always worked
with him,as did the female members of
the artisan’s family. The middle-class
household
at the beginning of the nine-
‘teenth century was a very extensive or-
_ ganization, with baking and slau
ght ering
and sewing carried on at home. Within
_such a household the women had much
responsible work. When the industrial
_ revolution introduced machinery for |
_ sewing, baking, and slaughtering, women
were left without any really technical re-
RE sponsibility. Many middle-class women
then began to direct their interest to-
wards fields outside their families. They
_ took an active part in social life. —
TeThe expansion of woman suffrage iin the twentieth century is connected with
these changes. |
Political Rights of Women
95 = : aan
on black: countries in which women have the same
ne political rights asmen lj ae
In more countries than ever; before:women are now admitted to universities and
to learned professions. Women artists, writers, orators, physicians, teachers, private —
and public officials are no longer uncommon. How modernization iis accompanied |
by the emancipationofwomenisespecially 1noticeable iin the easternrepublics. of the —
Soviet Union, and alsoinTurkey,Persia, and other Asiatic countries into which |
_modernization has penetrated. Veils.are vanishing; so is the segregation of men and
women. Even in backward communities women learn to read andwrite, and take se
| part in social and political life.En | rece ea -The workman’s wife and children were forced to go into the factory when they
could no longer help their husband or father at home. Wages of the man alone could
not provide for the whole family. Family life could not flourish. Children were a
burden in the early period of industrialization; they were made to work when very
young, to increase the family income. Many children were an economic blessing,
thus considered. Hence younger children were often better fed than the first born,
as a matter of financial expediency. a | | |
All this has greatly changed with the mechanization of factory processes, the
reduction of working hours, and the better wages brought about by strikes and the
growing political influence of the working classes, or with the need of armies com-
posed of well-fed, healthy fighters rather than of half-starved wretches.
Work, Leisure, Sleep
Formerly
a Br However motivated, social welfare
carinst: ward. offunemployment, which
plunges part of the population back into
poverty,oftendestroys family life, and
rr, we | . forces workers to take to the road in cara-
ENEN a vans or on foot as hoboes. This “fifth
Be | estate” constitutes part of the population
en en ne ofevery glamorous metropolis.Work, Leisure, Sleep
Formerly
Subdivision of the 24 hours of a day
red: work blue: leisure black: sleep
116
During the World War many women
had to take men’s places. After the war
they were forced out of industries before
the men. In both Fascist and non-Fascist
countries it was trumpeted that “wom-
an’s place is in the family and the home.”
Now that hands are needed in the prepa-
ration for war, the slogan has changed to:
“Woman must be regarded as man’s help-
mate.” This is another step towards the
equalization of men and women, and
hence towards modernization of the rela-
tion of men and women. The wives of
unemployed men often try to earn some
money by working. This means that the
husband has to do the housework and
care for the children. The conception of
a wife as a cheap servant is vanishing.
Though we are still living in a “male so- Football at American Colleges |
ciety,” the expansion of the rights of
1920
women and girls is a characteristic of ee
modernity. And the exercise of these
we
5
rights is no longer restricted to the office
or the home. |
Once only the males of a community
had the privilege of indulging in sports.
Nowadays men and women may actually
compete in gymnastics or in athletics.
Even in Germany, where every girl is
regarded as a potential housewife and
mother, the old distinction has broken
down, and girls and boys are trained in
the open by common instructors.
_ Sports are an element of modern
life; huge crowds watch a football game:
Each section represents seating facilities for1 million spectators | |
Each man symbol represents 100,000 spectators mt
17The youth 3not only of the well-to-do but also of the lower classes engage in
athletic sports such as swimming, walking, or football and join athletic clubs or
teams if their bodies are not too exhausted by work or poverty. This interest in
sports is developing to such a degree that it must be> regarded as a manifestation of
modernity.
This evolution of athletic sports is closely connected with preparations for war.
Even the Olympic games can also be regarded as a factor in the comprehensive
militarization of public institutions and private life. Becoming or keeping fit through
exercise is accepted on principle in Great Britain, the Soviet Union, Germany, and
the United States. Exercise is often connected with “hikes” or marches or with in-
_ struction and practice in first aid. Mere boys know how to use the rifle in Italy and
other countries. In Switzerland this is an old tradition. Military training is provided
in certain American universities. Physical exercise enhances the military power of a
nation even if it is not directly connected with military drilling and training. Eng-
lish clerks well trained in sports became good soldiers in the World War. In many
_ countries among the younger generation of the upper classes we find civilian aviation
_elubs and similar organizations, most of which have, directly or indirectly, the idea
of national defence behind them. Oursis an atmosphere of war. In Great Britain,
a non-militaristic nation, a new Territorial Army badge has been introduced, which
may be worn by all ranks whenin mufti, symbolizing service in the Territorial Army.
The first immigrants into New England also lived in such a warlike atmosphere.
Pictures showingmen carrying muskets on their way to church with their families
are familiar. Fighting was endemic in thatday. Today war is like an epidemic,
breaking out from time to time. Military equipment for killing human beings is
_ regarded as necessary to state organization; parades of soldiers are spectacles. Uni-
_ forms and flirtation, military bands and celebrations are closely connectedin West-
ern civilization. Armies are the embodiment of businesslike practice on the one hand
(through theprogressive elimination from soldiers’ drill of all superfluous move-
ments in certain countries), and on the other hand the colourful and resounding
_ representatives of governments, parties, and other institutions. The introduction
into the Talian army of the “Roman step,”’ which is a variation of the Prussian
____ “goose-step,” is an example of the unification of militarization. Themilitarization
ei of publie and private life has placed a premium on youth
. |
_ Athletic sports and militarism are powerful influences. Saluting, flag-signal- |
ee Tingor wigwagging, and similar demonstrations,adapted to the customs of different \
countries, are common in public life. The collectivization
of modern lifeis pre-
ee oe pared for by this development, while simultaneously the youth of both sexes is freed _
from the paternal tradition. The rightof youth to a personal life of its own within
the family, with freedomfor study or devotio
n to arts or science, is acknowledged.
pee
nf Theprinciple that : agirl o1
or a hoy needs his own zoom and should :not be forced to
118live always among adulis is generally applied where the standard of living allows it.
The declining birth-rate facilitates this. Boys and girls still livein different worlds,
but the differences are not as sharp as they once were. In all classes leisure, recrea-
tion, education, are essential. One remarkable difference, however, remains un-
changed. The childhood of girls and boys of the working classes ends at about the
age of fourteen; young men and women of more than fifteen go to work as adults. —
The boys and the girls of the upper classes, on the other hand, enjoy a few more
years of childhood, years which are filled with study, exercise, and recreation.
Recreation and education are more common today than they were a hundred
years ago. The masses achieved these privileges partly as concessions from above
after organized protests and political struggle, and occasionally as the result of a
revolution, as in the Soviet Union.Thereis more and more leisure, whatever vari-
ous religious, political, and other attitudes may be. Evidently modern man intends
to organize work and recreation. International commercial competition has equal-
ized this trendin all countries representedin the world market. A mill hand whose
working conditions in Manchester are better than those of his fellow in India is
haunted by the fear that his British employer may be forced to increase working
hours. British manufacturers fear the competition of cheap labour. Hence, their
direct interest in labour regulations abroad when they find it impossible to augment —
working hours at home. General reduction of working hours may occur with in-
creasing unemployment. Workers and employers are both influenced by these forces.
Working hours can be reduced by the usual type of international agreement, but not
unemployment, which requires a higher type of organized effort. A large proportion
of the labouring classis demanding more leisure and better living-conditions. An-
other group is in rebellion against the present social order as a whole. Reduction of
working time is a positive achievement, It means more time for recreation, more
happiness. 0000000 | On
One requirement has remained ¢constant throughout the centuries:the: amount =
of sleep man needs. Toreduce that iisto undermine his health. And since it varies _
little, long working. hoursmean ingeneral less leisure. The general trend towards
more leisure means a profound changein daily life, not only for the masses, but also
for ruling groups. On theEuropean continent, for instance, during the nineteenth oe
century high officials -were not givenfree Sundays. =free week:endmeans a reor- =
ganization of private life. Es |
With more leisure and 1moresparemoney :a| new family life jis possible The ==
home has new attraction tominds andbodies not exhausted by overwork. rere
_ Technological advancehas contributedmuch towards making the home more_
| attractive. Washing-machines, v
vacuumcleaners, sewing:“machines, gas stoves and oil oefurnaces that do away with shovelling coal, push-button conveniences, radio sets, 8
phonographs, and motion-picture projectors have made the home more than merely |
a place where weary workers may snatch a few hours’ needed sleep.
Modern Devices in Different Income Classes
Columbia; South Carolina
$1...-499 |
$ 1500-1999
. andover _
5 The number of homes out
of 10 which have:
| 5 DE
| Gas foreooking Electric light Bathtubors showers Refrigerators. Automobiles .,ai
~ MANA
ASA KSA KS AKS
OEE AEEA ES
2. RIIKKA
mdFamily life in the city is different from family life on the farm. By tradition a
farmer rises at dawn (even before dawn in winter) and toils until sundown, with a
rest at noon for the principal meal of the day. When night falls he is at home. He
goes to bed not much later than barnyard fowls go to roost. Working hours are
determined by the length of the day and by the season. With urbanization and the
electrification of the home there comes independence of the sun. Nightis more than
the time for sleep. This becomes apparent when we consider the hours when city
folk and farmers take their meals.
Meal Times nn A
in the country N intowns L
breakfast |
breakfast
hot midday meal
dinner 1Meal Times
in the country zn
\L/
in towns
breakfast RX)
breakfast
hot midday meal
supper
dinnerDinner no longer marks an interval between periods of work. Leisure, pro-
longed into a night which is an artificial day, is spent partly at home, partly in cin-
emas, public libraries, and theatres and partly at sports and games. There is now more
interest in pure fun than in drinking, which once occupied the short leisure of old.
The shortening of the working day has changed life more than have all the inventions
which have made it possible to organize leisure on a broad scale.
Seating Accommodation in Theatres, Music Halls and Cinemas
in the> County of London, per 100> population
Theatres and.Musiec Halls | | Cinemas
1911
191
| Each single black symbol represents T seat per 100 population in theatres and music halle
OO Each set of three white symbols represents Tseat per 100 population in
in cinemas |
EEfon an average 3 3 Performances daily) E = oo a omg)
EN The invention of radio. made indoor life more attractive andgave a new mean-
oe ing to the hearth after the rush and unrest of the day. People are not “set” in their
ways or “dyed iin the wool.” They have within themselves resources that await de-
= velopment. When one special part of man’s characteris brought out, some opposite
is brought out too. Itiis not true that the ‘ ‘mechanization” of work breeds a love for
more mechanization. Itis possible to turn an oil valve and thus to flood a house with |
| heat. Yet, despitethe oil furnacein the cellar, we often find logs crackling iin a fire-
place and reviving memoriesof what we call “the good old times” of our grand-
“> “fathers. Life iin homes withfirst-class plumbing does not
stifle a desirefor camping,
: eeor! hiking.”
uThe automobile, which is a part of London |
the usual equipment of Americans, to- The Population Moves to‚the Suburbs
gether with other means of transporta- 1851
tion, has brought about another impor-
tant change in man’s daily life. Men can
now travel farther than formerly in the
same space of time. As a consequence
of this, towns are expanding even faster
than their populations are growing.
Home and place of work are often very
far apart. In other words, though the dis-
tance from home to work is much longer,
the time necessary to cover it has not
changed much. Many people who have
1891
to work in the unrest of the city like a _
quiet home. The population of the busi- —
ness centre is decreasing everywhere in
favour of suburbs. _
In spite of the industrial revolution
ushered in by the steam engine, the
rhythm of personal life did not always
change. In a great many respects, how-
|
ever, modern technology opens new pros-
_ pects for a greater number of people. A
__ rich man in ancient Rome could obtain
_ light instantly if he wished. He would 1935
.
clap his hands and a dozen servants
De would bring torches and lamps. Nowa- ==
days anybody who has electric lightin his
home can always obtain light instantly.
_ Such conveniences are more widely used —
than formerly, and there are many more ©
= whichhaveyet to be put to generaluse. |
Inventions that speed up travelhave
u ‘notradically changed modern man’s gen-
eral sense of relative proximity to the _
farthest.outposts of the civilized world. .
The Roman Empire, for instance, com-
| _ Each symbol represents100,000Population a
Innermost circle: City,Finsbury, Holborn | u =. u
prised |about all the.regions with which | ‘Second circle: County ofLondon 0. a
| the |ancients. were‚ directly concerned. Outer circles Greater London | an worlThe time it takes to travel with heavy luggage from New York to Singapore—about
three weeks—is approximately the same as the time it took to travel from Spain to
Asia Minor.
The longest distance between two points on the earth’s surface is an arc of 180°.
From Spain to Asia Minor is about 36°.
Travelling Distances in the Ancient Roman Empire
Bach unit of distance represents one travelling day red: onland blue:
on sea | a som
Travelling Distances Nowadays.
en | : : . 8 |
we Each unit of distance re |Much more than by technical devel- Infant Mortality. Tuberculosis. Accidents.
opment, personal life has been changed
by the prolongation of life, by the reduc- |
tion of the death-rate. A modern child
does not learn what death means as early
United States af
as did a child of past times. It does not
often happen now that parents, brothers,
sisters, or playmates die during the form-
ative years of a child. In Western coun-
Chile
tries parents were formerly more accus-
tomed to losing children by death, as they
Great Britain
are now in countries where the public
health service is badly organized.
Though accidents are not the prin-
cipal cause France
of death, they occupy an im-
portant place in mortality tables, not
only because they occur to people in the
best of health, but also because, as every- italy
body knows, they may be largely avoided
by better safety measures. Especially in-
dustrial accidents, which are more or less Netherlands
expected and taken into account by man-
agement, give rise to protest. It is often
pointed out that the human lives sacri- Germany
ficed by mismanagement of work or
inadequate protection outnumber the
deaths due to war—in other words, the —
mismanagement of world society.
The number of cases of tuberculosis
can be largely reduced. American and
other experience demonstrates that the
toll that it exacts can be reduced
to the
same extent as death from accidents. | Each square represents 5 deaths per10,000 population anny
Again the responsibility must be laid at first trow: infant death-rate
„second and third row: death-rate above the ageof 7
_the door of social mismanagement. That - with double cross: from tuberculosis black: from external causes
the plague and cholera vanished from outline: others. en : Ì oe (accidents, homicide) u 4
the modern world, that the incidence of —
typhoid fever, tuberculosis, and many
other diseases has been largely reduced,
means that aman born today under more _or less the same circumstances as were hisancestors may be expected to reach a
greater age than if he had been born a century ago. But if he lives beyond child-
hood, his chance of reaching old age is not much better than was that of his great-
grandfather. This can be seen from a comparison of average ages at death now and
formerly. The gain has been madein reducing infant mortality.
The rapid declinein the death-rate causes war deaths to stand out glaringly. If
the number of those who die on the battlefield or from wounds receivedin battle
remains constant, war will be more than ever like a terrible epidemic. During and
after the Middle Ages deaths caused by the plague were so high that deaths which
were the result of war seemed low in comparison. _
| Large familiesin the past were repeatedly forced to put on mourning for rela-
tives and friends. They were familiar with the rites associated with death and burial
and therefore with churches and congregations too. Even less religiously inclined
people came into contact with their clergymen in connexion with birth, marriage,
and death. How can one test the state of religion? Is the Church losing or gaining
ground as society changes?
Silhouette ofaTown | Oe a
Middle Ages . 5 | u
u. | Modern Times ee
In the MiddleAge eachchurch w as‚built for a‘certain number of persons.T he |
ae size.ofa community could be judged bythesizeofthechurch. As a rule the church ©
Was also the biggest building iin a town.This is nolonger true. There aremany |
u more adultsin a town nowadaysthan there : areseatsin the churches. _ |
a | Modernmen are freer than weretheirforebears. from church ties. This does nn
Da notmean2 thattheyarefreefrom alleconnexion1 withtheChurch, Many do not put |Silhouette of a Town (\ _ fi
ay MAR LL
Middle Ages Modern Times —
In the Middle Ages each church was built for a certain number of persons. The
size of a community could be judged by the size of the church. As a rule the church
was also the biggest building in a town. This is no longer true. There are many
more adults in a town nowadays than there are seats in the churches.the teachings of their churches into practice. It is difficult to make an international
survey of these changes. Thisincreasing freedomis connected on the one hand with
an increasing understanding of how to influence other people by words, and on the
other with certain kinds of training in behaviour and thinking. The idea that a
priest’s wise words could be a substitute for medicine has been discarded. More and
more men understand the power of words. The importance of personal training is
more appreciated in the Western world, as it has long been appreciated in Asia. The
Catholic Church, no longer internationally predominant, is now only one church
among others.
How can the influence of churches on individuals be measured? The increase
of suicideis one test. It indicates a decreasing ecclesiastical influencein certain re-
gions. The growing practice of birth-control is another sign. Though contrary to
the teachings of most Christian churches, birth-control is now widespread. In some
countries the Church is still strong enough to oppose the practice successfully. On
this point statistics are more informative than speeches and pamphlets. The evi-
dence shows that birth-control started in the higher social classes. As far back as
1900 it was beginning to gain ground: |
_Births per 100 Married Women, between 15 and 50 Years fof Age about 190 0
in Paris En . xananas|ee
Poor districts
Intermediate
districts
Rich districts
in Vienna
Poor districts
Intermediate
districts —
Rich districts
In many countries representatives of the ruling classes passed laws punishing a
5 promotion of birth. control though theythemselvess practised itit;but they 2also knew — J
7how to escape the legal difficulties which might arise as the result of their practices.
After a period of advocating birth-control, the government of the Soviet Union pro-
hibited abortion and brought forward certain objections to birth-control. Hence at
the moment birth-controlis under scrutiny all over the world. Since there are diffi-
cultiesin producing food and building homes for the population, most governments,
while prohibiting instruction in methods of birth-control, try to justify their de-
mands for an increase in population partly by promoting moral and religious ideas,
partly by stressing the doctrine that a strong nation needs military power.
The amount of premarital sexual intercourse in all classes of the Western coun-
tries is increasing because birth-control protects a woman’s good name particularly
in countries where giving birth to an illegitimate child is a disgrace. Many young girls
no longer feel bound by parental admonition in these matters. They lead their own
lives, especially if they support themselves, arrive at judgments by themselves, espe-
cially if family ties have been broken. Premarital intercourse is common
in certain
rural districts. Hence urban and rural morals are now much the same. This is not a
sign of urban “decadence.” In certain regions where birth-controlis unusual, wide-
spread premarital sexual intercourse can be proved by means of the high percentage
of illegitimate births.
The predominant influence of the Catholic Church seems to prevent birth-con-
| trol iin Austria, but not, to the same extent, premarital sex connexions, which are
traditional. In other countries the situation is very different. The Mohammedan tra-
. dition prevents premarital sex connexions and illegitimate births iin Algeria.
Legitimacy per 10 Births ‚|
legitimate |
es
in the United Stat
in Great Britain
: in Germany
_ inAlgeria
sortIt may be assumed that a great many love problems that might have ended dis-
astrously are solved in modern times, because, according to statistics, unrequited
loveis no longer so decisive a factorin suicide as formerly. Young people encounter
fewer difficultiesin finding their mates than before. Celibacy among young men is
rare, even in the middle classes. The boundaries between the different ages seem to
have been removed. Not only the length of life, but also youth has been prolonged,
with health and love. But conflicts
and fear based on social difficulties haunt the
youth of today as much as adults. The fluidity of business and the world situation
has its effect on the social environment, and hence on daily life. A chart symbolizes
this personal situation at the end of a “bad” year:
BUSINESS INDEX DROPS SHARPLY
Severest Loss Recorded, With Six Components Lower, Led by Heavy Declines
. in Power, L
Lumber and Loadings Series
120
ral Ä m an |
| LPE
| | ony
| |. Ine \
|
ANT, TOLL
HT NEW YORK TIMES® | |
| fh | 1 IWEEKLY BUSINESS INDEX|
| Adjusted for Seasonal Variation|
| 3S. > ESTIMATED ekMT |
VY —
| {ges tego | gst {1932 [sega seed 1935/1996) | oo MAR AR|Junein]
FIMJA D
1938 w
Registering ita sharpest loss, Tera fala for Jumber and tolacellansous) for seasonal variation und, ie the,
‘Now ‘Your Taas weakly index of |tarlondings were higher but lumber | cage of carloadings, electria power
business activity has dropped to|Productlon was sharply lower and production as
and cottonmaill nativity,
Men and boys, ‘womenand girls tetten sneer Be teen ee cere
78.2 for the week ended Jan. 1, 8| Meictr
cue ae nnnfOr lane
comparing with 108.0 for the core|aerter, "all other" carloadings and | Amn
also for the automobite Production | Senaat mn dn
stare at these and similar graphs iin news Piresponding
Six comprests were
wee lower,
ve, Ted]tat | votton
anfurniahed
fren byhethe stoel
en ingot
get| Eee Nobile
EE
audi
week laut year. milk activity, The only gain | Heel itngot onduation SE
Ws- was products
papers, read articles about the economic _ 2 Sees ee e
lossen in electric power production, (han ge
depression, or listen. to stories told by En a | oe
their fellow workers iin factories and of- —
fices. Many are afraid of. losing their
jobs, others oflosing their savings and investments.Hence the schemes to offset the
possibilityof unemploymentandoflosseson the exchange. In such times of market
depression well-to-do and working people are obsessed by the same fear.|
Most workerslive inconstantfear of what their employers may do. Advertise-
ments for hair dyes,means for.removing wrinkles or preventing bodyodour, for
making people attractiveand young, strike home by picturing a boy ora girl saying:
“The boss willfireme.’> Workersmustbeclean, good-looking, and not tooold. In
this connexionit doesnotmatter whether an “age dead-line” is fixed which makes it
necessary to dismiss :a manofforty or fifty because he is too old. Thethickening
| 29pace or finer specialization may work against the man who has reached middle age
in factory or office. The resultant insecurity contributes to a social instability which
in turn increases the chance of war and internal disturbances. |
Many men deliberate not only on how to escape from their own personal difh-
culties but also on how to change the social order. Others favour aggressive action
such as the persecution of the Jews in some countries of central Europe or attacks on
foreigners who are held responsible for bad economic conditions. Party ideals in-
fluence daily life. In periods like the present the fear of war fuses together groups
which have been antagonistic. Free discussion and calm judgment are not supported
by governments in times of danger. Many peaceful activities were checked in al-
most all countries during the World War by espionage acts and other measures.
Nevertheless it must not be concluded that life in terrible times is full of misery
and oppression. If men cannot remove the cause of their pain by direct means, they
can often take refuge in friendship, love, poetry, or faith on the one hand, and in
the calm of a scientific research, liberty of thought, and humanitarian effort. Dur-
ing the bloodiest years of the Renaissance the finest and noblestin man came to
lieht. As aristocratic families in Perugia fought one another,
masterpieces were
paintedinnear-by Assisi. And before that Franciscans preached the simple life
while armed men clashed. —
Perhaps the oppressions and disturbances of today, the overstatements of politi-
cal propaganda, and the unscientific attitude of the great publiccause a strong incli-
nation towards personal freedom and a scientific attitude as an overcompensation for
themisery. “Civil liberty” was closely connected with the industrial revolution in
spite of contemporaneous oppression. Men still yearn for it. As science develops,
the conviction gains ground that social management would be more efficient if the
scientific attitude weremore generally held. The evidenceis strong that a scientific
a attitude iin modern daily life is increasing in spite of the difficultiesthat must be
overcome; among these this human behaviour is an integral part of a certain
social environment. We are all of us “conditioned” by tradition, by education, by
social circumstance. Hence a scientific attitude is slowly acquired. It is well that
thisis so. For it is often dangerous for a nation to be forced to adopt rules at once
instead of examining them again and again at leisure. The scientific attitude cannot
be taught as arithmeticis taught. Protracted,comprehensive social and personal
ae“training” is indispensable. | 3 | u
A scientific. attitude cannot evolve iin a vacuum, but:must.be based on the total
a “traditional behaviour, a part of whichis far from scientific. Social institutions may
be changed and war and unemployment eliminated, but this does not instantly alter
ae behaviourwhichis so ingrainedin everybody that most men take it for granted and
7 never give ita thought. Whoever asks why men wear trousers and women skirts in
NEEN_ Westerncivilization; why horseflesh, snakes, and rats are not a part of our food;
130why men are buried or cremated and not transformed into soap? Traditions and
superstitions are still at work. Skyscrapers are symbols of modern cities, but:
LT
Tit
LUT
LT
AT
III TE
ERunzy
BEER
EERE
42h
„Where has the ded floor gone to?
home, pane
OEL
HEE
The life of modern man is not wholly modern. The environment may be the |
last wordin technology, but life itselfis shot through and through with inherited —
ways of thinking and behaving that are centuries old. These are insufficiently ana-
Iysed. During and immediately after the World War the number of books on spir-
| itualism, astrology, and such subjects increased. T able-tipping, the materializa- _
tion of spirits, clairvoyance, and remnants of demonology and thaumaturgy have |
= their adherents. The superstitious taboo of the number thirteenis not unique. How ae
En many people |knock on wood and believe in talismans andcharms? Science must in- een
BBand explain what part it plays in the sociainl
_ vestigate this aspect of social behavioursocia
order as a whole. All nationalism, all l and personal ideals have their roots
| | |
ancient beliefs.
That scientists try to discuss these questions without bias may be called a trend
avoid the influence of tradition when he be-
towards modernity, but no scientist can usly
gins his investigations. He is unconscio It isencu mbered by his own personal beliefs.
Step by step these may be transformed. can benotachie unusual for reformers and revolu-
tionaries to overstate the effects which . Biologicalved in the field of personal, re-
ligious, artistic, and scientific behaviour science know ledge of today, with the
will be able to transform man
theory of heredity, does not indicate whether ,” or by other measures.
by altering glands, by a certain personal “training y changing
The social order might be reconstructed without fundamentallbasis of tradi-
human character, merely by transformingbesocia l institutions on the
possible to love and hate one another,
tional scientific attitude. Thus it may still is now
but with a sense of social security that the conce lacking. New and grave human
‘difficulties will then arise. But that problem is judgingrnthem of a more remote future.
Without pursuing utopian ideals, men capable of ning the sphe selves and their insti-
tutions scientifically should also be capable of wideenough that the re of peaceful co-
operation; for the historical record. shows clearly trend has been
more
in that direction on the whole and that the more co-operative man is, the
_ “modern” heis. coeNo text on this page.
No text on this page.
The purpose of this appendix is to make certain additions and acknowledg-
_ ments so that the reader may be stimulated to read various books, either as sources
of great scientific value or as general and more popular works of information.
Many special publications have been consulted.
For readers who are interested in the general statements and their sources it
may be a help to thumb over the following comprehensive publications: |
Statistical Year-Book of the League of Nations
World Economic Survey (League of Nations)
Annuaire internationale de statistique (Institut International de Statistique)
Apercu de la démographie (Institut International de Statistique)
The Statesman’s Year-Book (London)
Appendix, containing world surveys, of Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche
Reich
Statistisches Handbuch der Weltwirtschaft (Berlin)
W. Woytinsky: Die Welt in Zahlen (Berlin, 1925)
M. G. Mulhall’s Dictionary of Statistics — |
Isaac Lippincott: Economic Resources and Industries of the World (New York,
1930) |
Publications of the World Power Conference |
Statistical Abstracts of various countries, such as the United States, the United
Kingdom, the British Empire, etc.
Handbooks, such as the China Year-Book, the Chinese Year-Book, the Japan Year-
Book, the South Amertean Hand-Book, the Handbook of the Soviet Union, and
others
George Sarton: Introduction to the History of Science ( Baltimore, 1927)
The Cambridge Ancient History
Several encyclopedias contain valuable material, such as the Encyclopedia
Britannica. Newspapers and periodicals contain much vivid bat not always reli-
able material. | 2 me | | | ze
Certain quotations 2are included 2as useful and stimulating, because they show
how the generalizations of the kind madein this book
can be based on detailed ex-
planations and vivid descriptions. A book in which pictures and text are interwoven, _
as in this one, cannot compete with documented works. Itis offered as a supplement E
or asan introduction to the subject of social man. | | | u
135on the ISOTYPE method ...
. . based
29
Page 7. “
The isotype method (see Otto Neurath: International Picture Language,
the First Rules of Isotype; London, 1936) is founded on a special visual dic-
tionary of about two thousand symbols and a special visual grammar which
can be used to tell a story in pictures which can be understood almost at a
glance. Machines, the functions of animals and men, plans of cities, social
facts, and historical trends are explained by standardized elements which are
put together like building-blocks to convey ideas and tell coherent stories.
The pedagogic value of this visual method has already been demonstrated
in general education andin schools,in teaching lessons of public health, child
care, safety, and so on, to adults and to children. With good visual aids, one is
less dependent on good teachers. It is easy to interpret ISOTYPE pictures, but a
period of training is necessary to compose them.
The selection. of educational materialis not so simple. The man who can
leave things out most skilfullyis the best teacher. The “transformation” of
certain ideas into clear lay-outs based on the material selected is the second
difficult step. Everything has to be reduced to its bones. It needs a special
aptness to create a definitely satisfactory chart according to a given lay-out.
Irrelevant details are ruled out. This applies not only to the separate symbols
but also to the complete charts. The actors on this stage must work together,
constantly influencing each other.
The isotype method may well become one of the elements that may help
to bring about a civilizationin which all men can participate in a common
culture “and iin which the canyon between educated and uneducated will be
bridged. Perhaps everyone will work as a specialist
iin his field; at the same
time he will—he must—take part activelyin the common life, understanding
the main problems of his world and sharingin the responsibility for solving
them. Our generation is opening the way for this new life of tomorrow in spite
of all counteractions. Part of this preparation is the improvement in our means
for cultural communication, which : are already beginning to reshape our whole
scheme of education. We cannothope to democratize cultural life without
_ manynew waysof conveying information. One of theseis the isoTyPe method,
which aims toprovidea simple, comprehensive, and exact means of visualiza-
= tion.
Page 8. “ . to take a scientificattitude .ss.” Bu
See John Dewey: ‘‘Unity of Science as a ‘Social Problem,” International
\ :Encyclopedia ofUnifiedScience, VolumeI, Number 1 ( Chicago, 1938), p. 29.
__L. Susan Stebbing: Thinking.
to Some Purpose (Penguin Books, 1939).
u 136Page 8. “Walt Whitman’s “There was...”
Walt Whitman: Leaves of Grass. See “Song of Myself.”
Page 8. “Goethe’s saying that ‘a philistine .. .
9 99
Wolfgang Goethe: Zahme Xenien, Sechste Reihe, 30.
“Was ist ein Philister? “What is a Philistine?
Ein hohler Darm, An empty sausage-skin,
Mit Furcht und Hoffnung ausgef le _ Stuffed with fear and hope,
Dass Gott erbarm! May God have mercy!
pe? qo?
Page 8. “ Walt Whitman’s unceasing enthusiasm, ‘the Modern Man I sing.’ ”
Walt Whitman: Leaves
ofGrass. See “One’s-self I sing.”
Page 14. “The Black Death . . .”
Hans Zinsser: Rats, Lice and History (Boston: Little, Brown & Company,
1935), page 88:
“The Black Death, spreading in Europe . . . found an entirely susceptible
population, which accounts for its terrific ravages. When its first sweep across
the Continent was exhausted for want of victims, it remained endemic, smoul-
dering until relighted by the accumulation of new fuel. . . . In 1899, isolated
cases occurred in Trieste, Hamburg, Glasgow, Marseilles, and Naples. .. . As
late as 1907, twenty-four Chinese of San Francisco came down with plague... .
Yet no epidemics have resulted.” |
Mm. Kowslewsky: Die ökonomische Entwicklung Europas (Berlin, 1911), Vol.
V, page 341:
“Since, as we have seen, serfdom had long since made 1room here for paid —
labour, the propertied Spanish classes seem particularly to have been affected
by the devastation of resources and theincrease in wages following the sudden
drop in population on the Iberian Peninsula. For the influence of the Black
Death made itselfmore poignantly felt here thanin other European countries, _
in that the part-owners and tenants were suspending payment of their taxes in
money and produceand the landed proprietors, in consequence of the de-
| mands for highwages,made inereased use of the cheaper serf labour.”
Page 14. . kings andpopes, painters and scientists wiee
For instance: — \ | |
1138. Lothar, the Holy Roman Emperor
1270. SaintLouis, King
of France1438. Edward, King of Portugal _
1457. Ladislaus, King of Bohemiaand Hungary,
1494. Ghirlandaio
1511. Giorgione
1523. Perugino
1576. Titian
99
Page 14. “. . . unemployment...
The figures for the last two years are percentages of unemployment among
insured persons. In the years for which the figures are available for trade-
union members and for insured persons there was a considerable agreement
between them: |
AVERAGE YEARLY PERCENTAGES
Trade-Union Mem- | _ Insured Persons
bers Unemployed | Unemployed
Per Cent | Per Cent
1922 15.2 | 16.1
1923 | 11.3 | 12.4
1924 8.1 | 10.8
1925 10.5 12.0
1926 12.2 | 13.2
See also Abstract
of Labor Statistics.
Page 15. ie police kept the plague outside western and central Europe.”
A. Proust: La Döfense de PEurope contre la Peste (Paris, 1897), page 271:
“During the plague of 1531 and 1533 the Parliament,in an ordinance dated —
August 26, 1531, laid down the‘measures to be taken... .”
Victor Heiser:An American Doctor's Odyssey (New York: W. W. Norton &
Company; 1936), page 98:
“Bubonic plague, a namesynonymous with disaster to ‘the Ancient and
Medieval World, need not exist in the Modern. ... Flea surveys are now
made to show that species are present among the denizens of the rat under-
world. A port may be considered non-infectible when the flea population of
the average rat contains no more than one cheopis.
“New Yorkis a safe port. The New Yorker may seek his Sabine Farm as a
_ pleasant refuge, he need never be driven there by the blind panic which pos-
sessed the citizens of Florence when the Black Death had stormed their walls
and taken their city in ‘a sad and wonderful manner.’ But the citizens of San
Francisco, Mobile, and New Orleans must still exercise vigilance if they wish
to sleepin peace.” nn |
138Page 16. “. . . came from the steppes
in Central Asia.”
Source of the map: Studies of Professor Josef Strzygowski’s institute for
the history of arts at the University of Vienna.
Page 16. “. . . the Lop Nor lake . . . changed its position. . . .”
Sven Hedin: Der wandernde See (Leipzig, 1937).
Page 16. “Outer Mongolia...”
To the regions of Outer Mongolia the region of Tannu Tuva has been added,
which is bounded by Outer Mongolia and by the Soviet Union. It was formerly
considered part of Outer Mongolia but is now an independent republic under
the protection of the Soviet Union.
Page 17. “. . . badly fed soldiers do not win battles.”
The Times, London, March 11, 1938, page 8:
“Mr. Hore-Belisha’s Speech: ‘Out of every 100 boys who have passed
through the Physical Development Depét which my predecessor established
92 have passed into the Army as fully fitted soldiers. In view of the satisfactory
results it is proposed to open at least one more physical development depötin
1938. One of the items of diet on which recruits in the physical development
depöt are sustained is, according to prevailing medical doctrine, milk. In
future not only these recruits but all others who,in the opinion of the medical
officer, need special nourishment will have an extra issue of half a pint of this
| stimulant a day.’ eo”
Page 22. “The
© pre-Columbian civilization of America was highly developed. . . .”
See the usual reference books; also: Dr. Stephen-Chauvet: L’Ile de Paques B
(Paris, 1935). | |
Page22. “The influenceof the Arabie civilization en |
George Sarton: Iintroduction tothe History- of Science. (Baltimore: Williams &
Wilkins Company; 1927), Volume II, “From Rabbi Ben Ezra to Roger
Bacon,” Part I, page 32 C‘Survey of Scientific Thought iin the Twelf th and
Thirteenth Centuries”) : a
“At any rate we may take the date 1144 as the date of introduction 0of Arabie |
alchemy into westernEurope.”
139| Page 22. “. . peace for the sake of peace . . .”
V. A. Smith: The Early History of India (Oxford University Press, 1924),
. pages 164, 185:
“Inasmuch as the reign of Asoka lasted for fully forty years, he must have
been a young man when, in or about the year 273 B.c., he undertook the govern-
ment of the vast empire which had been won and kept by his grandfather and
father. ... |
“The victor records with sorrow that 150,000 persons were carried into cap-
tivity, 100,000 were slain, and that many times that number perished from
famine, pestilence, and the other calamities which followin the train of armies.
“The sight of all this misery and the knowledge that he alone had caused it
smote the conscience of Asoka, and awakened in his breast feelings of remorse,
profound sorrow, and regret.
“The king acted up to the principles which he professed, and abstained
from aggressive war for the rest of his life. About this time he came under the
influence of Buddhist teaching, his devotion to which increased more and more
as the years rolled on. . . .
“It is easy to understand that believersin ideas of this kind may be led
logically to regard the life of an insect as entitled to no less respect than that
of a man. In practice, indeed, the sanctity of animal was placed above that of
human life; and the absurd spectacle was sometimes witnessed of a man being
put
to death for killing an animal, or even for eating meat. The most pious
Buddhist and Jain kings had no hesitation about inflicting capital punishment
upon their subjects, and Asokahimeelt continued to sanction the death penalty
Dn throughout his reign.” | Ä
Page 25. “Silk.Roads.”
Sven Hedin: Die Seidenstrasse (Leipzig, 1936). u
Albert Herrmann: Die alten Seidenstrassen zwischen China und Syrien (Ber-
lin, 1910).
_ Page 27. “The Egyptians destroyed papyrus when too much of it grew... 97
Otto Neurath: Antike W irtschaftsgeschichte, Chapter V, “Das Griechisch-
orientalische W irtschajtssystem” (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 3rd edition
1926).
_ Page 27. “The Mongols Je
"Harold Lamb: Genghis Khan (New York: Robert M. McBride & Company;
1927). A stimulating introduction.
“After the first steps of conquest .sae
Page 2. 9
George Sarton: Introduction to the History of Science, Volume IL, Part II,
Chapter xxviii (“Survey of Science and Intellectual Progress in the First
Halt of the Thirteenth Century”), page 503:es
ee
“Mongol and Chinese—The great Conqueror, Chingiz Khan, deserves
to be
rememberedin this survey on the same grounds as many other rulers who were
weeen
not simply generals and statesmen but cultural promoters of the very first
order. . . . We may speak of a Mongol civilization originated by Chingiz Khan,
which was essentially a combination of elements derived from China, Central
de
nenten
Asia, and Islam, and adapted to their own needs. He showed much toleration
of foreign faiths.”
Chapter xlii (“Survey of Science and Intellectual Progress in the Second Half
of the Thirteenth Century”), page 726:
“China and Mongolia—It is hardly necessary to insist upon the immense
educational task accomplished by Kublai Khan. In a sense everything was to
be done for his Mongolian subjects, and he did the most difficult part, the
beginning.”
Page 30. “The Treaty of Westphalia .. .” |
The Treaty of Westphalia consists of two treaties, one between the German
Emperor and France, the other between the German Emperor and Sweden.
The Netherlands and Switzerland were declared independent.
Page 31. “Congress of Vienna.”
The Ottoman Empire is excluded from the European states. This is an old
tradition. The ideas of world unity of Erasmus (Dutch scholar, 1467-1536)
excluded the Turks. Leibnitz (German scientist, 1646-1716) suggested that
the French King fight the Turks instead of fighting Austria. |
At the Congress of Vienna European problems were predominant. The
question of Negro slavery and the settling of difficultiesin Guiana, however,
were also discussed. The map does not show extra-European dependencies of
the signatory powers.
Page 31. “Treaties of Versailles, Saint-Germain, Trianon.”
‘Treaties signed by the Alliesafter the World War are:
Treaty of Versailles (with Germany)
Treaty of Saint-Germain (with Austria and Czechoslovakia)
Treaty of Trianon (with Hungary)
Treaty of ‘Neuilly (with Bulgaria)
Treaty of Lausanne (with Turkey).
In the chart the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, between the Soviet Union and the
Central Poowers, hae been included. | Ä | |
Page 32. “ After the conquest...”
Use William H. Prescott’s books as introductions, and Philip Ainsworth
Means: Fail of the Inca Empire (New York and London: ‚Charles Seribner’s
; Sons; 1932re
4Page 34. “. . . “This dark Madonna was the heathen goddess Tonantzin . ne
9 99
| | Richard Summers: Dark Madonna (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers; 1937).
| Page 34. “. . . they needed Indian wives . 99
Philip Ainsworth Means: Fall of the Inca Empire, page 69:
“Not only did the physical hardships and the inevitable perils incidental
to going to Peru deter many Spanish women from accompanying their hus-
bands, and lead them to quaint subterfuges to avoid it, but also the law tended
to discourage the growth of a Spanish female population in Peru not alone by
prohibiting the going thither of unmarried women but also by authorizing
marriage between Spanish men and Christianized native women. . . The
mixture of blood was not necessarily a bad one; indeed, such men as F ather
Blas Valera and the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega prove that it could be a very
good one. At all events, the mestizos of Peru came to form a large and im-
portant class in colonial society. Subsequently, as we shall see further on,
greater numbers of Spanish women came into the country and helped in the
formation of its small but powerful pure white uppermost class.” |
Page 34. “,. . this new slavery . . .”
Thomas Clarkson: History of the Rise, Progress and Accomplishment of the
_ Abolition of the African Slave Trade by the British Parliament (London,
1839).
_L.C. Vrijman: Slavenhalers en slavenhandel (Amsterdam, 1937).
Thomas F. Buxton: The African Slave Trade (London, 1840).
_ Abram L. Harris: The Negro as Capitalist (Philadelphia: American Academy
of Social and Political Science; 1936), page ix.
____Page
36. “ .. the division of the earth between the Spanish and Portuguese . . .”
Savas Mitteilungen, September 1937, page 83.
Page 30. : a pirates . oa
JN _ Philip Gosse: The History of Piracy (New York: Longmans, Green & Com
_ pany; 1932).
_ Pages 307-8 (“The Classical Pirates”): . Pompey .
“In forty days after his arrival off the coast of Asia Minor, the pirates were
completely crushed. . . four hundred ships had been captured, thirteen hun-
dred destroyed, all atéenals burnt, and all forts razed. More than ten thousand
_ pirates were computed to have been drowned and twenty thousand captured.”
Page 39. “They went . we where they found the most wealth and the least resist-
ance.” 5 |
Rolf Nordenstreng: Die Zi
Züge derWikinger (Leipzig, 1925). |
‚Axel Olrik:v iking Civilization (New York: W. W. Norton & Company; 1930).
142Allen Mawer: The Vikings (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons; 1913).
George Sarton: Introduction to the History of Science, Vol. I, page 724 (“The
| Time of Al-Biruni. First Half of Eleventh Century”).
Matthias Thördarson: The Vinland Voyages (New York: American Geo-
graphical Society; 1930).
Page 41. “. . . the Irish question . . .”
Mary Hayden and George A. Moonan: A Short History of the Irish People
(London and New York: Longmans, Green & Company; 1922).
Page 41. “. . . a series of names appears representing . . .”
Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany.
Signed at Versailles, June 28th, 1919 (British Foreign Office. H.M. Sta-
tionery Office, 1925)
:
“For this purpose the HIGH CONTRACTING PARTIES represented as follows:
HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
AND OF THE BRITISH DOMINIONS BEYOND THE SEAS, EMPEROR OF INDIA ...
and |
for the DOMINION OF CANADA...
for the COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA...
for the UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA...
for the DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND...
for INDIA...”
Page 41. “. . . every self-governing member of the Empire
is master of its des-
tiny . „> |
For a similar formula see Constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Re-
publics (Moscow: C o-operative Publishing Society of Foreign Workersin the
US.S.R.; 1936), Article 17.
“For each Union Republicis reserved the right freely to‘secede from the |
USSR”
Page 41. “This is; the British Commonwealth of Nations.”
The Cambridge History of the British Em‚pire (New. York:The Macmillan
Company;1929), Volume I, “The Old Empire from the Beginnings to
1783,” pages v, 20:
“|. It was not until late jin the fifteenth century that her oceanic expan-
‚sion began. . « EE On
_ “If anything absolutely new can be traced to thepossession of ourEmpire
. it must be traced to> the most original feature in it,the progressive develop-
143ment of dependencies into independent partner nations which have neverthe-
less remained by the mother country’s side and under the same sovereign.”
_K. C. Wheare: The Statute of Westminster and Dominion Status (Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1938). Ä
Page 45. “. . . modernity.”
See a vivid picture of a city moving towards modernityin Robert S. and
Helen Lynd: Middletown (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Company; 1929) and
Middletownin Transition (1937).
Middletown, page v: “the realities of social science are what people do”;
page vi: “the social anthropology of contemporary life”; page 4: “the life of
the people as a unit complex of interwoven trends
of behavior.”
Page 46. “Birth. rate.”
_T. H. Marshall, R. Kuezynski, and others: The Population Problem (Lon-
don: George Allen & Unwin; 1938). |
T. H. Marshall: “What the Public Thinks.” page 32:
“The general view was that people will always want children. Deliberately
childless marriages occur, and more often, we were told, in the middle thanin
the working-class. But theyare exceptional. And whatis the upper limit? .
| “It would seem that forces over which politicians and economists can exer-
__eise no control have determined that few mothers to-day are willing to have
more than three children. Whatever we do, it is extremely unlikely that we
shall go back to the large families of the last century.”
_ RB. Kuczynski: “World Population,” pages 107, 112, 119:
; “In 1770 the average length of a white person’s life was about thirty years.
Now it is about sixty years. Before this reduction of mortality began, the white
_ population of the world was not increasing; births were only just sufficient to
- fill the gaps caused by deaths. Since that time births have exceeded deathsin
almost every single year, and the population has increased continuously..
_ “That the Italian and the German Governments themselves consider their
population policies as inadequateis proven by the fact that they have recently
announced emphatically the necessity of taking new measures.”
A.M. Carr-Saunders: WorldPopulation (Oxford University Press; 1936).
u D.vz Glass:The Struggle for Population (OxfordUniversity Press; 1936).
Page 52. “The Chinese developed moie of edn:use of the soil .. .”
KA Wittfogel: Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Chinas (Leipzig, 1931), pag
303:
At the beginning of theChou dynasty, of the twelfth century B.C., nothing
144was yet known of a general fertilization of the fields. Then only the seeds were
fertilized. .. . Thereby was one stage in the intensification of agriculture
achieved—one which India did not attain until modern times, not to mention
the agriculture of pre-industrial Europe. In the second great epoch of Chinese
history, during that time when the north of the Great Plain was cultivated, the
technique of fertilizing was also manifestly developed from a treatment of
seeds alone to the complete one of the soil itself.”
Page 54. “A new life, with more leisure, began.”
H. M. Vernon: The Shorter Working Week (London: George Routledge &
Sons; 1934).
Page 55. “. . . symptom of modernity.”
The discussion of cultural trends is a scientific tradition.
See Adolphe Quételet: Physique sociale ou Essai sur le développement des
facultés de homme (Brussels and Paris, 1869), Vol. II, p. 152, “Development
of the Intellectual Faculties”; p. 171, “Postal Service and Electric Telegraphs”;
p. 232, “Suicides and Duels”; p. 388, “The Average Man Considered with Re-
spect to Philosophy and Morals”; p. 389, “Laws of the Development of Human-
ity.” Without discussing the basic principles of certain ideas dealing with
“evolution,” the stimulating book of Alfredo Niceforo: Les Indices numériques
de la civilisation et du progrés (Paris, 1921), might also be mentioned.
Page 55. “. . . philosophers hesitated to speak freely about suicide.”
When David Hume (1711-76) was preparing a volume of his essays for
_ publicationin 1757, he removed two of these essays from the copies which were
already printed and had to add other text in place of them. He did so out of
respect for publie opinion and that of his friends. The text of the two essays
_was leftin one of theoriginal copies and was published after Hume’s death:
_ Essays on Suicide and the Immortality of the Soul, ascribed to the late David
Hume (London, 1783). See J. H. Burton: Life and Correspondence of David
Hume (Edinburgh, 1846, 1850) and Anton Thomson: David H ume, sein Leben
undseine> Philosophie (Berlin,1922), Vol. I page ©95.
“silhouettes” areused to‚ present simplified features of different countries.
Onecountry may be more“modern” than anotherin one field and less“mod- _
ern” in other fields. Hence different countries cannot be ranked according toa
single “degreeof modernity.’” Thereis no satisfactory basis on which to com- —
pute the scale of the single elements of the silhouettes, such aslength.of life, |
145_guicide-rate, literacy. number of radio sets, which would resultin one “index
number” of modernity for each country. _
The data for this chart are the latest available (1935). Data for suicide and
literacy are not identical with those for page 55. The span of life is a little
longer for women than for men (see age groups, page 58). For Spain the last
data available are for 1908-23. The figure has been expandedin proportion to
the average of prolongation of life since then. In Japan literacyis higher than
in some European countries. Elementary educationis compulsory and school
attendance has been high since the beginning of the twentieth century. The
Encyclopedia Britannica ( fourteenth edition, 1929) states: “Now there is
practically no illiteracy” (see article “Japan,” Vol. XII, p. 925). On the other
hand, in the article “Illiteracy” (Vol. XII, p. 94) the same encyclopedia gives
4.3 per cent for illiteracy among the army conscripts in Japan.
Page ı65. Chart: Economic Scheme. |
The chart represents the approximate proportions between the number of
workers in the different occupations who provide everything that the whole
population uses,under the present technical conditions in an industrialized
country. The population occupiedin so doing appears once more (in outline)
among the consuming population. Part of the population which belongs to the
same age groups as those in occupations is not included in the Economic
Scheme—for instance, students and housewives (though the latter play a not
negligible part in the apportionment of consumption; the Russian statistics
| include them among those occupied). Other groups who only appear among
the consumers are young people who arenotyet oceupied and old people who
are no longer occupied. es
The occupations represented are: — Zu |
Use of natural resources: agriculture and stock-raising; forestry; fishing; ex-
traction of minerals, stones, and earth; water-power.
Semi-manufacturing: textile industry; tanneries; flour and grain mills; lum-
ber industries; chemical and allied industries; blast furnaces and steel rolling
mills; clay, glass, and stone industries; gas, electricity, water-supply.
Manufacturing: clothing and millinery industries; shoemaking; food, bever-
age, cigar industries; paper industry, printing, and publishing; furniture-mak-
ing; building trades; machine and other metal industries; shipbuilding; pro-
duction of vehicles and aircraft.
Distribution and service: commerce; postal service; transport; education and
recreation; health service ; Justice, police, army,and navy; domestic and per-
sonal service. Le | |
Page 65-6. “Such a scheme leads to thequestion ..ona .
This agglomeration forms not only:the environment of men’s life, but also
its fluctuations. Some think it should be possible to find the best environment,
but others. understand very vwell that acomplete knowledge of all these details
146opens up more than one choice. Men have always to decide whether they want
to create some combination of production and accomplishments or not.
Science can indicate certain broad plans and may help the choice in such a
way, but it is not in a position to substitute for the choice “the best” solution.
One might demonstrate “silhouettes” of various combinations. At present
there seems to be no way to calculate “maxima” or “optima” by means of index
numbers representing different combinations of food and drink, shelter and
recreation, building of houses, schools, theatres, together with the burden of
working time, accidents, diseases, etc. The only way to aid conscious decisions
is to clear the situation by comparing silhouettes.
Page 67. “. . . Southern workers.”
Fernunterricht (Correspondence Course) (Vienna: Gesellschafts- und Wirt-
schaftsmuseum; 1931), Volume I, Number 2, page 6:
BRITISH INDIA: REAL WAGES, INCOME 1930
Real wages
Average yearly and income in units
| | eurnings in rupees of buying-power
Wages of Labour in England, average £170 2300 100
Farmers 150 6
High-salaried Specialists (mechanics,
locomotive engineers) 1200 | 50
Skilled Industrial Workers, low-paid
category (weavers) 300 12
Unskilled Industrial Workers 120 | | . 5
Page 68. Chart: Sources of Power.
In order to make a combination of coal, petroleum, and water-power pos- |
sible, a rough caleulation has been made of how much energy may be produced
from water-power during a year. The method adopted by the World Power
Conference has been taken as a basis.
Page 71. “. ‚ Countries may be dividedinto overcrowded, crowded, and more or
less empty ones.”
This definition of “crowded” and “overcrowded” avoids the concept of an
“optimum population.” Such concepts cannot be sufficiently defined for sci-
entific purposes and are not necessary for the decisions of men. Here again the
method of “silhouettes” is preferable; such a discussion as the following be-
comes superfluous: nt
A. M. Carr-Saunders: World Population (Oxford. University Press, 1936), page os
“The statement that, with reference to any given area, the optimum popu-
lation is that population which produces maximum economic welfare is _
unexceptionable. Maximum economic welfare is not necessarily the same as
maximum real income per head; but for practical purposes they may be taken —
as equivalent. Overpopulation exists when numbers exceed the optimum, and
47 ;- underpopulation when they fall below it; in either case real income per head
is less than it would be if the optimum prevailed.” —
Naturally, importation is always possible; therefore the establishment of
welfare depends upon the world situation, including social order, accidents,
and disease. The term “maximum economic welfare” is not adequately defined.
Page 71. Chart: Area per Capita in Countries around the Pacific.
The area includes waste land, which forms a large part of Australia and
also of China. The parts of Canada to the north of 60° have been separated
from the rest. These parts can hardly sustain any population whatever.
Page 72. “. . . economics of humanity.”
This term has been suggested by the sociologist Rudolf Goldscheid.
Page 73. “Now hundreds of thousands of expatriates livein foreign countries.”
Among organizations which occupy themselves with the problems ofemi-
grants are: the Nansen International Office for Refugees (especially for emi-
grants from Russia and for Armenians), the Intergovernmental Advisory
Commission for Refugees, 1933, both under the authority of the League of
Nations, and the permanent commission created by the intergovernmental
conference of Evian, July 1938.
Page 74. “Fluctuations a . may also arise in the Soviet Union .. .”
SOVIET UNION
Production of | | Stocks of
Coal Petroleum Cattle | Pigs
| (millions of metric tons) (millions)
1920 8,6 3.8 | 342 14.5
191 085 40 35.5 13.3
192 900 GD 32.3 6.0
1923 10.8 5.7 41.3 9.4
1924 16.2 6.5 41.6 | 17.2
1925 | 17.0 15 0 60.6 18.8
1926 | 26.0 88 | 64.1 18.1
1927 u 32.3 11.0 67.8 20.0
1928. 35.8 12.3 70.5 26.0
1929 — ALT 145 | 67.1 20.4
1930 . EE ATI | 18.6 | 92.5 13.6
181 58.0 22.3 | 47.9 14.4
1932 | 644 214 40.7 | 11.6
1933 — | | 76.0 21.4 | 38.4 12.1
1934 = 39 24.2 | _ 424 17.5
1935 | 1089 25.2 | 493 _ 226
1936 1262 273 56.5 30.4
1937 7 1225 27.7 (1938) 50.9 25.7
| Fluctuations in these figures iin the years 1929-34 are due to collectivization.
148Page 74. “Business cycles . . . become more and more international.”
W.C. Mitchell: Business Cycles (New York: National Bureau of Economic Re-
search; 1927), page 443:
“Another way of summing up the international relationships of business
cycles since 1890 is to run down the columns of entries in table 32 for each year.
There is no year of the 36 covered in which the same phase of the cycle prevailed
in all of the 17 countries. Uniformity is approached, however, in 1893, 1899,
1906, 1908, 1912, 1916, 1920, and 1921; and in most years there is a marked pre-
ponderance of entries of similar tenor. . . . The existence of a general trend
toward uniformity of business fortunes is plain.”
Page 77. “... the possibilities of production and reconstruction are enormous... .”
Otto Neurath: “The Present Growth of World Productive Capacity” (The
Hague, 1932) (Synopsis), page 751. See also page 105. In:
World Social Economic Planning. Material Contributed to the World Social
Economic Congress, Amsterdam, August 1931. Published by the Interna-
tional Industrial Relations Institute. M. L. Fledderus, editor.
Page 78. “During the war many ships were lost . ..”
Gross tonnage Gross tonnage
launched | destroyed
| Ä oe (millions) | (millions)
1912-16 | 12.3 68
1917-21 26.2 ld
1922-26 10.7 oo 25.
1927-31 | | 123 | 55
1932-36 | 5.6 94
Page 81. “Autarchy .
Otto Blum: Verkehrsgeographie (Berlin, 1936), page 47:
“Since the large countries always extend through diverse zones, the danger
exists that the cooler areas which make up the political and economic centre of
the state are imperilled first in their farming and thenin their industry by the
_ warmer areas, since the latter can produce many things more cheaply and
because their population has a lower standard of living. So the white Northern
states of the United States are endangered by the coloured Southern states. In
the same way France, and especially the French farmer,is affected by Algeria. =
The fault lies particularlyin transportation, whichis too cheap and too rapid.
What would happen to the German farmer if he were to live iin a ‘large country’ mn
and did not enjoytariff protection?” | a are
Thisis characteristic of certain kinds of argument usedby promoters of ed
| autarchy.
149Page 82. “novels and articles in periodicals dealing with such subjects.”
Frank C. Hanighen: The Secret War (New York: John Day Co.; 1934),
a journalist’s book, partly based on Zischka’s book on oil, and on J. K. Winkler:
W. R. Hearst, An American Phenomenon (New York: Simon & Schuster;
1928), Anton Mohr: The Oil War (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Company;
1926), Pierre ’Espagnol de la Tramerye: The World-Struggle for Oil (New
York: Alfred A. Knopf; 1924), Louis Fischer: Oil Imperialism (New York:
International Publishers Co.; 1926), and other popular “unmasking” books.
Other examples are: Ludwell Denny: America Conquers Britain (New York:
Alfred A. Knopf; 1930), Ludwell Denny: We Fight for Oil (New York: Alfred
A. Knopf; 1928), Sidney Russell Cooke and E. H. Davenport: The Oil Trusts
and Anglo-American Relations (New York: The Macmillan Company;
1923).
Howard and Ralph Wolf: Rubber New York: Coviei Friede; 1936), pages
129, 130:
“The story of Africa’s rubber monarch has been told. Thisis the story of
_ the subjects, of the Congo blacks on whose stinking backs the tinpot King at
Brussels mounted from virtual bankruptcy to the imperial magnificence of
_ rubber sovereignty and a place amongg the real rulers of the world, Leopold
himself never saw these blacks. . . . |
“On soldier- and laborer-recruiting raids led by white officers troops ‘regu-
Jar’ and irregular shot down defenseless blacks, struck down babies with gun
butts, finished up with cannibal banquets. On punitive expeditions from
majorstations and from lost one-white outposts in the bush they went out un-
an supervised by white officer or agent to wreak vengeance on villages negligent
in feeding rubber to Leopold and food to his gunmen, wood choppers, laborers
and station slaves. Smoked hands they broughtin by the basketin proof of
_ orders obeyed. andto demonstrate there had beenno undue waste of ammuni-
tion. Sometimes male sexual organs were required, but if it was a showing of
hands no questions were asked even if they had been sliced from children. In
each of the rubber-gathering villages one or more of these cannibal riflemen
was stationed as a sentry ving 0on the people and driving all adult males into
the feorests to
to glean caoutchouc.” |
os the strength o f both sides does not vary greatly.”
During the World War the proportionbetween total mobilized troops and
total population was about the same for all European nations involved (about
_ twenty per cent). For Great Britain and France, however, there came troops
from other partsof the world, which have been included. For the charts on
the two following pages the assumption has been made that the proportion
_ between the armies is the same as the proportion between the populations of
_ the European territories. But for natural resources all the resources from over-
seas have been included; thatis, Indian, Canadian, Australian, ete., for Great
Britain, the resources of the total FrenchEmpire for France, etc.
150Page 83. “. . . raw materials which are of importance for armament . . .”
Alfred Plummer: Raw Materials or War Materials? (London: Victor Gol.
lanez; 1937), page 11: | |
“When, therefore, it is asserted that certain nations, countries or powers
have not free access to raw materials, does this mean that they have difficulty
in obtaining raw materials in peace time, or does it mean that they would have
difficulty in obtaining them if they were at war? Oris it alleged that iin both
peace and war thereis no free access to raw materials?”
Pages 84 and 85. Charts: Silhouettes of War Economy.
It seems useful to show a selection of raw materials essential for waging
war available to various alliances, instead of analysing the position of the “Big
Seven” (see Frank H. Simonds and Brooks Emeny: The Price of Peace [New
York: Harper & Brothers; 1935] and others) or of ranking the powers (see
Herman Kranold: The International Distribution of Raw Materials [London:
| George Routledge & Sons; 1938], who uses index numbers in addition).
Since this account is for the general reader, no fine distinctions have been
made. The principle of calculation is this: The maximum of production since
1929 (that is mostly the production of 1929 or the latest year) has been con-
sidered for every country. This is because productive capacity is the essential
point. Therefore the percentages differ from those of Kranold, who takes the
average of the production of the most recent years, which depends on business
| conditions and does not give an impression of productive capacity. Sometimes _
Si | | estimates were necessary (for example, for rice-productionin China, whichis
E not zero, though it does not appear in most international statistics). The
countries which are not belligerent can hardly be called “neutrals”; it has
been assumed that their goods are divided among both belligerent parties, u
partly by trade, partly by occupation. |
| No estimate has been attempted of possible petroleum-produetion. The
\ | “Big Seven” will be interestedin the control of petroleum-productionin the
| region of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean,in the East Indies, and in
the Near and Middle East. |
These rough outlines do not comprehend the question of substitutes for
rubber, etc. Ä |
Page 87. Chart: Seasonal Fluctuations.
See Mary Van Kleeck: Miners and Management (New York: Russell Sage
Foundation; 1934), Part II, “The Problem of Coal in the United States; a
record of failure and a forecast of the solution,”page 184, “Goalin the Eco- |
nomic Crisis.”Page 87. “At present preparation for war often reduces unemployment and stimu-
lates production.” |
Joseph Lowe: The Present State of England (Second Edition, London, 1823):
Page 31, “Increase of Employment during the War... .”
Page 33,“. . . we have merely to refer them to a comparison of the average
rate of wages and salariesin particular periods, such as 1792 and 1812; to the
increased sales of our manufacturers and merchants, the rise of rent to the ©
landlord; theincrease of profit to his tenant.” |
Page 88. Chart: Pax Romana.
See, for instance, The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. XI, “The Imperial
Peace” (New York: The Macmillan Company; 1936) and James H. Breasted:
The Conquest of Civilization (New York: Harper & Brothers; 1926).
Pitrim A. Sorokin’s Social and Cultural Dynamics (New York: American
Book Company; 1937), Volume III, “Fluctuation of Social Relationships, War,
and Revolution,” contains valuable and stimulating statistical material con-
cerning war in history. This :is not the place to discuss statements such as
(pages 377-8, 342): | Ä |
“A study of all the compartments of culture of Greece has shown that the
fifth and the fourth centuries B.c. were the periods of transition from Idea-
tional to Sensate culture, in the history of Greece, while, beginning with the
third century, Sensate culture became more or less crystallized and dominant |
there... . The fourth and the fifth centuries were the most belligerent cen-
turies in Greek history. In the third and then in the second centuries, the
curve of war falls sharply. ... Turn now to the curve of Rome... .. The
_ third century gives a sudden and: an enormous rise of war. Itis the most mili
tant century in Roman history. Though the Roman culture began possibly to
| disintegrate somewhat in that century, the disintegration was not so great as
towarrant such a rise of warmagnitude. In other words, the rise of the war
‘eurve in that century may be explained by the interference of other factors
than the transition discussed... This rise of war curve... can be accounted
for through the Carthaginian iinvasion rather than by the factor of transition.
. .. The first century a.p. is the century of a comparatively crystallized Sen-
sate culture.Respectively, the war indicator for it is very low. . . . Low re-
mains also the indicator for the second century, though it is higher than for
the first (in absolute figures). In thatcentury the Sensate culture began to be
undermined, but not very much, as yet. The third century is definitely the
_ century of transition from the Sensate to the coming Ideational culture. Exactly
in accordance with the hypothesis, the curve of war rises notably... .
“If now we take the relative indicators of the casualties, probably the most
_ important criterion of war, they tell definitely and unequivocably that the
curse of privilege to be the mostdevastating or the most bloody war century
belongs to the twentieth; in one quarter century it imposed upon the popula-
tion a ‘blood tribute’ faar greaterthan that imposed by any of the whole
152centuries compared [ie twelfth to twentieth centuries]. The next place be-
longs to the seventeenth, and then comes the eighteenth century; the nineteenth
century appears to be the least bloody of all these centuries concerned. . . .”
Page 89. “. . . cruelty in peace-time.”
In peace-time people learn quickly all kinds of cruelty. See, for instance,
George Allan England: Vikings of the Ice (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday,
Pagee & Company; 1924):
. . » On deck, louder yells summoned. Keen with the blood lust, all who
could go on the ice began heaving on their gear. Such a shouting, such a
leaping to arms, such a buckling-on of sheath knives, steels, belts, such a grab-
bing of tow ropes and murderous gaffs you never couldiimagine. —
| a . - From the bridge I hear the Old Man again: ‘I hate to kill these seal,
I do, indeed. It fair pains me!’ Astonishment! Has the Cap’n gone mad or
turned tenderhearted? Neither. For now he adds: ‘They’re so wonderful
small; some of them hardly worth the bother. If they could only have been
let grow another week... .’
“. «+ The kill draws to its close for lack of killable material. . . .”
Page 94. Chart: Profile of Family Income in Columbia, South Carolina, 1933.
See Consumer Use of Selected Goods and Services by Income Classes, Mar-
ket Research Series, prepared by the United States Department of Commerce,
1935 and 1936. The income groups represented are sample families, taken
from the whole of the populationin a proportion whichis as nearly as possible
that of the groups to the whole population. |
Page 95. “. . . the hoboes . . .”
Nels Anderson: The Hobo (Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1923), Pref-
ace and pages 3, 14, 61: | |
“The man whose restless disposition made him a pioneer on the frontier |
tends to become a ‘homeless man’—a hobo and a vagrant—in the modern city.
From the point of view of their biological predispositions, the pioneer and the
hobo are perhaps the same temperamental type; from the point of view of their
socially acquired traits, they are something quite different. . . . |
_ “A survey of the lodging-house and hotel population, supplemented by
the census reports of the areas in which they live, indicates that the number
of homeless men in Chicago ranges from 30,000 iin1 good times to75, 000 iin hard
times. — | 2 en . =
“From the records and observations of a great many men the reasons why
_men leave home seem to fall under several heads: (a) seasonal work and un-
employment, (b) industrial inadequacy, (c) defects of personality, (d). crises
in the life of the person, fe)racial or national discrimination, and. (f ) wander- :
lust.” DE “ |Pages 96-7. Charts: Two Types of Tenements, and Living Conditions and Mortality
| from Tuberculosisin Brooklyn.
See the publications of the State Board of Housing, New York, of the De-
partment of Health, New York, the maps and charts prepared by the Slum
Clearance Committee, New York, and Robert 5. and Helen Lynd: Middletown
and Middletownin Transition.
Page 98. “Most marriages are between persons of the same social standing.”
See statistical material in Alfredo Niceforo’s Anthropologie der nichtbesitz-
enden Klassen.
Page 100. “. . . dissatisfaction . . . expressed freely.”
Nels Anderson: The Hobo (Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1923), pages
229, 228: |
“What of the soap-box reformer and revolutionist? Is he a menace or
_ merely a joke? The curbstone orator is not an agitator in the ordinary sense of
that word. He is merely a thinking hobo. . . .
“Soap-boxers all say that they have enjoyed more liberty in Chicago than
in most cities. Chicago police have always taken a generous and liberal attitude
toward the eurbetone forum.” |
Pages 101-2.“. relatively nminor disturbances ended by changing the social and
political order.” .
In connexion with this it should be mentioned that groups of zealous and
| ‘convinced adherents of an idea are generally small, and that the great majority
of people have no serious conviction and adhere to the victorious. Macaulay
is of the same opinion and gives an example:
äThomas Babington Macaulay: Critical and Historical Essays, * ‘Burleigh and
- His Times”:
“There was undoubtedly a zealous Protestant party and a zealous Catholic
party. But both these parties were, we believe, very small. We doubt whether
both together made up, at the time of Mary’s death, the twentieth part of the
nation. The remaining nineteen twentieths halted between the two opinions,
and.were not disposedto risk a revolutionin the government, for the purpose
of giving to either of the extreme factions an advantage over the other. . . .
“Those risings clearly showed how small and feeble both the parties were.
_ Bothin the one case andin the other the nation ranged itself on the side of
the government, and the insurgents were speedily put down and punished.”
154Page 103. “Irrigation is important ... in... China.”
See Chao-ting Chi: Key Economic Areas in Chinese History (New York:
Peter Smith; 1936) and K. A. Wittfogel: Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Chinas
(Leipzig, 1931).
Page 103. “. . . gigantic dams are built . . .”
Among other plans is that of cultivating the Sahara, by creating a higher
level of water in the Mediterranean.
Pages 104-5. Charts: The Basin of the Mississippi and Its Tributaries, The Flooded
Area near the Estuary of the Mississippi and Its Population.
See The Mississippi Valley Flood Disaster of 1927, Official Report of the
Relief Operations, The American Red Cross, Washington, D. C., October 1929.
Page 106. “. . . the exhaustion of the soil .
2
See Second Report of the Science Advisory Board (Washington, D. C.,
1935), W. L. G. Joerg: “Research Problems in Natural Science Bearing on
National Land Planning,” pages 381, 388:
“The most important physical crisis in land use is soil erosion. ... The
Soil Erosion Service has been established. It has three principal functions: to
investigate the process and causes of soil wastage, to record the areal extent
and severity of surface destruction, and to undertake protective management
of slopes to stop such losses and restore normal conditions. A fully successful
campaign of soil and surface conservation must rest on a knowledge of the
process of soil wastage and its areal expressions. This knowledge is derived.
from two types of studies, one dealing with climate and the other with the
relation of soil to slope. .. . | 5
“The most important project under the head of vegetation, however, is
possibly the study of the genetics of the domesticated plants native to America —
with regard to their directed breeding. . . .”
Page 109. “. . . or to overcome the disadvantages of. =climate.”
Ellsworth Huntington: The Pulse of Asia (Boston: Houghton, MilliCos
1907), Preface and pages 362, 382, 383, 384: |
“At the beginning of the Christian era, ihe vast plains of Central Asia
appear to have supported untold hordes of nomads. When the plains began
to grow rapidly drier, the inhabitants must have suffered sorely. Oe
_ “As the nomads pressed outward from the drier central regions of Asia, |
_we can imagine how they were obliged to fight with the neighboring 1 tribes 5whom they tried to dispossess. The old inhabitants and the newcomers could
not all live together; new migrations would be a necessity; and confusion
would spread in every direction. Meanwhile, Europe, after its long period of
blighting cold, was becoming warm and habitable, and the migrants pressed
into it, horde after horde. No one tribe could stay long in its chosen abiding-
place, for new bands of restless nomads pressed upon it. Rome fell before the
wanderers. Nothing could stay their progress until the turn of the tide. . . .”
Page 116. Chart: Work, Leisure, Sleep.
“Three times eight hours” seems to be an old and world-wide tradition.
Alexandra David-Neel: With Mystics and Magicians in Tibet (London: Pen-
guin Books; 1937), page 89: “The daily routine included eight hours of medi-
tation divided in four periods of two hours—eight hours of study and manual
work—eight hours devoted to sleep, meals and recreation according to indi-
vidual tastes.”
H. M. Vernon: The ShorterWorking Week (London: George Routledge &
Sons; 1934), page 168: |
“.. . Thereis usually a good deal of similarity i n the leisure-hour occupa-
tions of persons of the same social class who are livingin the same district
and are employed on somewhat similar types of industrial work. . .. Anin-
vestigation is describedin the. . . report onNew Aspects of the Problem of
| Hours of Work . . . men and women in Liverpool. Lae
AVERAGE DISTRIBUTION OF. TOTAL HOURS PER WEEK
aa. | a Men Oe | Women
At work BEE 48 | 48
In transit to or from work = = 9 | en 9
_ Meals and personal matters 2 | | 21
60
Sleep 55
Balance of leisure — : u BR | 830
. Total hours in the week BB = 168
le All the persons interrogated spent some; portion of their time on amuse-
ments and recreations, and the table indicates that 72 per cent of the men and
‘women spent over three hours eachin attending religious services.’
| Page 117, “Becoming . .aft through. exercise is accepted on principle in Great
t
In the “Keep IFit” movement the Britons coin slogans such as “Throughout ©
the Empirein work or playfitness wins.’ ’ National fitness has become a state
policy and physical training the subjectof the national health campaign. One
ean find similar tendenciesinalmost all countries, in the United States, the
Soviet Union, Australia,anda4 apan. Bu |
56Page 118. “Armies are the embodiment of businesslike practice on the one hand
(through the progressive elimination
from soldiers’ drill . . .)”
ae The advertising appeal is very attractive: “The Army is a good job.”
Page 125. Chart: Features of Death.
To show the importance of infant mortality in the question of health, the
number of deaths of infants needs to be compared with the number of new-born
children. In this chapter and in this chart mortality in general is considered,
to show how often a modern man is likely to be afflicted by the death of a fellow
human being.
Page 126. “How can one test the state of religion?”
an Robert
S. and Helen Merrell Lynd: Middletown (New York: Harcourt,
Brace & Company; 1929), pages 382, 393, 396:
“The usual prayer meetingin the largest Middletown churches consists of
twenty-five to fifty persons, the large majority of them adults over forty, with
women predominating as in the Sunday services. A new Minister in the largest
church in Middletown succeeded in raising the attendance temporarily to 150
by reducing the usual prayer meeting to half an hour and following it with a
more informal discussion meeting. .. . The Sunday School is the chief in-
strument of the church for training the young in religion; of secondary im-
portance is the ‘young people’s society’ meeting in each Protestant church
Sunday evening for an hour before the evening service. Like the prayer meet-
ings, these discussion hours attract few people, attendance ranging from about |
fifteen to fifty, almost invariably with girlsin the heavy majority. ... The
testimony of those who have followed Middletown’s churches over a period of
years is unanimous that there is less spontaneous interest in these young
people”s services today than thirty-five years ago.”
Page 126. “Modern men are freer .ur . from church ties.”
Walter Lippmann: A Prefaceto MoralsNew York: The MacmillanCompanys
1930), page 59: |
“The modern man is anemigrantwho lives ina revolutionary society and
inherits a protestanttradition. Hemustbe guided by his conscience. But when E
he searches his conscience, he finds nofixed point outside of it by which he
can take his bearings. He does not really believe that thereis such a point,
because he himself has moved about too fast to fx any point long enough
in his mind.’ion | | = |
57Page 129. “Many are afraid of losing their jobs. .. .”
Robert S. and Helen Merrell Lynd: Middletown (New York: Harcourt, Brace
_& Company; 1929), page 66:
“The chance of promotion as it appears to the working class may be
glimpsed from the answers of the wives in 105 of the 124 sample families to
the question: ‘What seemsto be the future in your husband’s job?’ It was a
time of considerable local unemployment. Ten of the 105 husbands were al-
ready out of work, and ‘future’ meant hope for the naked chance to begin
getting
a living again at anything; for twenty-two other wives future meant
nothing beyond the possible date when “the mister’ would be laid off —for two
of them this future was no further off than ‘next Saturday’; to four others
the future meant predominantly a fear of the old-age dead line; to eleven
others a ‘good’ future meant ‘He’ll probably have steady work’; nineteen
others were hopeful in regard to their husbands’ work and their chances in it;
while the remaining thirty-nine faced the future with no expressed hope of
getting ahead. Of these thirty-nine, thirty-two, while not at the moment out
of work or driven by an active fear of unemployment, voiced keen discourage-
| ment.”
Page 130. “A scientific attitude cannot evolve ... 99
See International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, Volume I, Number I
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1936), especially the articles: Otto
Neurath: “Unified Science as Encyclopedic Integration” (pages 1, 23), John
Dewey: “Unity of Scienceas a Social Problem” (pages 29, 38), Charles W.
Morris: “Scientific Empiricism” (page 74). |I should like to acknowledge the work of my collaborators in the International Founda-
tion for Visual Education, who aided me in expressing my statements by means of the pic-
ture-text style: Gerd Arntz, chief of the graphic department, whose genius as we evolved the
ISOTYPE method, supported by other designers, created its characteristic graphic style; Miss
Marie Reidemeister, who has worked with me from the beginning of our pedagogical and
scientific activities, and who, as chief of the transformation department, with her combina-
tion of scientific judgment and ability for visualization, did the preparatory work. I should
like to thank not only these and other present collaborators of the Institute but also all those
who helped to build up our method and to develop our style during the last fifteen years.
I am under special obligation to Waldemar Kaempffert, who not only was for years a
friend of our educational and scientific work but also stimulated and helped me to elab-
orate this book. I also wish to thank my publisher, who was prepared to give me an oppor-
tunity to apply the picture-text style to a greater extent than was originally planned, in spite
of formidable difficulties. ce | | en
159 
Isotype Archive